Geophagia in Nigeria: Perceptions and Practices of Pregnant Mothers versus Possible Health Outcomes
Article Sidebar
Issue
Vol. 18 No. 3 (2023)
Accepted
27 November 2023
Published
30 November 2023
Keywords:
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edible clays, geophagia, health outcomes, pica, pregnancy
Abstract
This study aimed at ascertaining the perceptions and practices of pregnant mothers on geophagia, as well as highlighting possible health outcomes. For the cross-sectional survey, a structured questionnaire was designed, content-validated by experts, pre-tested and used for data collection. The questionnaires were administered to 200 pregnant mothers at health care facilities in southern Nigeria (particularly in Calabar and Onitsha), who consented to be part of the study. The findings of this study show that about 75% of the pregnant mothers admitted to consuming edible clays both during and after pregnancy with 60% of them stating that it was a safe practice during pregnancy. Also, the results show that income level and educational attainment significantly (p<0.05) influenced the perception and practices of the respondents regarding geophagia. Of the 2 edible clays explored in this study, kaolin clay was more popularly consumed than bentonite clay. With regards to respondents’ health status, none of them admitted to developing anaemia or any chronic disease during pregnancy. In conclusion, edible clays are still commonly consumed by women in Southern Nigeria, irrespective of age and exposure. Scientific reports show that these clays contain appreciable amounts of certain anti-nutrients and heavy metals, hence it is necessary to create awareness on the possible dangers related to their increased consumption, particularly during pregnancy.
References
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Bisi-Johnson MA, Obi CL, Ekosse GE. 2010. Microbiological and health related perspectives of geophagia: An overview. Afr J Biotechnol 9(36):5784‒5791.
Dominy NJ, Davoust E, Minekus M. 2004. Adaptive function of soil consumption: An in vitro study modeling the human stomach and small intestine. J Exp Biol 207(2):319‒324. https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.00758
Ejike US, Ogugua OC. 2017. Chemical and toxicological evaluation of edible clay (ulo) sourced from Southern Nigeria. European J Pharm Med Res 4(7):231‒235.
Ekosse GE, Jumbam ND. 2010. Geophagic clays: Their mineralogy, chemistry and possible human health effects. Afr J Biotechnol 9(40):6755‒6767.
Ekosse GE, Anyangwe S. 2012. Mineralogical and particulate morphological characterization of geophagic clayey soils from Botswana. Bull Chem Soc Ethiop 26(3):373‒382. https://doi.org/10.4314/bcse.v26i3.6
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Louba AI, Geissler PW, Estambale B, Ouma JH, Magnussen P, Alusala D, Ayah R, Mwaniki D, Friss H. 2004. Geophagy among pregnant and lactating women in Bondo District, Western Kenya. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 98(12):734‒741. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trstmh.2004.01.009
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Myaruhucha C. 2009. Food cravings, aversions and pica among pregnant women in Dares Salaam, Tanzania. Tanzan J Health Res 11(1):29‒34. https://doi.org/10.4314/thrb.v11i1.43248
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Odangowei OI, Okiemute O. 2015. Geophagic practice and its possible health implications -A review. J Multidiscip Res 7(2):100‒110.
Onyenweaku EO, Ene-Obong HN, Oko GE, Williams IO. 2019. Contribution of eggs and other cholesterol-containing foods to total dietary cholesterol intake, and their influence on serum lipid profile of adults in Calabar, Nigeria. European J Nutr Food Saf 9(4):329‒340. https://doi.org/10.9734/ejnfs/2019/v9i430080
Onyenweaku EO. 2022. Consumer fruit preferences: The role of nutrition knowledge in fruit purchase and consumption. J Gizi Pangan 17(3):157‒166. https://doi.org/10.25182/jgp.2022.17.3.157-166
Onyenweaku EO. 2023. Chemical composition of Kaolin Clay (Nzu) and Bentonite Clay (Ulo) and consumption prevalence among women in Southern Nigeria. Niger Agric J 54(1):467‒477.
Phakoago MV, Ekosse GE, Odiyo JO. 2019. The prevalence of geophagic practices and causative reasons for geophagia in Sekhukhune area, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Trans R Soc South Africa 74(1):19‒26. https://doi.org/10.1080/0035919X.2019.1572669
Saathoff E, Olsen A, Kvalsvig JD, Geissler PW. 2002. Geophagy and its association with geohelminth infection in rural schoolchildren from Northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 96(5):485‒490. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0035-9203(02)90413-X
Shkembi B, Huppertz T. 2021. Calcium absorption from food products: Food Matrix Effects. Nutrients 14(1):180. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14010180
Shimokawa S. 2013. When does dietary knowledge matter to obesity and overweight prevention? Food Policy 38:35‒46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2012.09.001
Singh I, Singh P, Patkar P, Chaudhury S, Saldanha D. 2021. Geophagia: A case series. Ind Psychiatry J 30 (Suppl 1):S240‒S242. https://doi.org/10.4103/0972-6748.328819
Smith B, Rawlins BG, Cordeiro MJAR, Hutchins MG, Tiberindwa JV, Sserunjogi L, Tomkins AM. 2000. The bioaccessibility of essential and potentially toxic trace elements intropical soils from Mukono District, Uganda. J Geol Soc London 157(4):885–891. https://doi.org/10.1144/jgs.157.4.88
Taiye FA, Koduah G, Mork SAP. 2013. Geophagia clay soil as a source of mineral nutrients and toxicants. African J Food Agric Nutr Dev 13(1):7157–7170. https://doi.org/10.18697/ajfand.56.12580
Umudi EQ. 2017. Mineral composition of edible clays from the Ozanagogo, Delta State, Nigeria. International Journal of Chemistry and Chemical Processes 3(2):2545–2565.
Vermeer DE, Ferrell J. 1985. Nigerian Geophagical clay: A traditional anti-diarrhoeal pharmaceutical. Science 227(4687):634‒636. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.3969552
Walker ARP, Walker BF, Sookaria FI, Canaan RJ. 1997. Pica. Health 117(5):280‒284. https://doi.org/10.1177/146642409711700503
Wardle J, Parmenter K, Waller J. 2000. Nutrition knowledge and food intake. Appetite 34(3):269‒275. https://doi.org/10.1006/appe.1999.0311
Woywodt A, Kiss A. 1999. Perforation of the sigmoid colon due to geophagia. Arch Surg-Chicago 134(1):88‒89. https://doi.org/10.1001/archsurg.134.1.88
Ahmad A, Wagustina S, Dwiriani CM, Estuti W, Salfiyadi T, Arnisam A, Fitrianingsih E. 2022. The efficacy of nutrition education on anemia and upper arm circumference among pregnant women in Aceh Besar district of Indonesia during the covid-19 pandemic. J Gizi Pangan 17(1):27‒36. https://doi.org/10.25182/jgp.2022.17.1.27-36
Attarha BO, Mikulic S, Harris C, Scolapio JS. 2021. Kaolin clay anemia. Cureus 13(3):e13796. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.13796
Barker OB. 2005. Tooth wear as a result of pica. Br Dent J 199(5):271‒273. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bdj.4812651
Bateson EM, Lebroy T. 1978. Clay Eating by Aboriginals of the northern territory. Med J Aust 10:1‒3. https://doi.org/10.5694/j.1326-5377.1978.tb142322.x
Bisi-Johnson MA, Obi CL, Ekosse GE. 2010. Microbiological and health related perspectives of geophagia: An overview. Afr J Biotechnol 9(36):5784‒5791.
Dominy NJ, Davoust E, Minekus M. 2004. Adaptive function of soil consumption: An in vitro study modeling the human stomach and small intestine. J Exp Biol 207(2):319‒324. https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.00758
Ejike US, Ogugua OC. 2017. Chemical and toxicological evaluation of edible clay (ulo) sourced from Southern Nigeria. European J Pharm Med Res 4(7):231‒235.
Ekosse GE, Jumbam ND. 2010. Geophagic clays: Their mineralogy, chemistry and possible human health effects. Afr J Biotechnol 9(40):6755‒6767.
Ekosse GE, Anyangwe S. 2012. Mineralogical and particulate morphological characterization of geophagic clayey soils from Botswana. Bull Chem Soc Ethiop 26(3):373‒382. https://doi.org/10.4314/bcse.v26i3.6
George G, Ndip E. 2011. Prevalence of geophagia and its possible implications to health–a study in rural South Africa. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267698554_Prevalence_of_Geophagia_and_its_possible_implications_to_health_-_A_study_in_rural_South_Africa [Accessed 1st August 2023].
Gomes CDSF, Silva JBP. 2007. Minerals and clay minerals in geology. Appl Clay Sci 36(1‒3):4‒21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2006.08.006
Hooda PS, Henry CJ, Seyoum TA, Armstrong LD, Fowler MB. 2002. The potential impact of geophagia on the bioavailability of iron, zinc and calcium in human nutrition. J Environ Geochem Health 24:305‒319. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020542810334
Horner RD, Lackey CJ, Kolasa K, Warren K. 1991. Pica practices of pregnant women. J Am Diet Assoc 91(1):34‒38. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-8223(21)01058-0
Johnson D. 2017. Pica during pregnancy. Int J Childbirth Educ 32(1):45‒47.
Louba AI, Geissler PW, Estambale B, Ouma JH, Magnussen P, Alusala D, Ayah R, Mwaniki D, Friss H. 2004. Geophagy among pregnant and lactating women in Bondo District, Western Kenya. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 98(12):734‒741. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trstmh.2004.01.009
Mogongoa LF, Brand CE, de Jager L, Ekosse GE. 2011. Haematological and iron status of Qwa Qwa women in South Africa who ingest clays: peer reviewed original article. Medical Technology SA 25(1):33‒37.
Myaruhucha C. 2009. Food cravings, aversions and pica among pregnant women in Dares Salaam, Tanzania. Tanzan J Health Res 11(1):29‒34. https://doi.org/10.4314/thrb.v11i1.43248
Njiru H, Elchalal U, Paltiel O. 2011. Geophagy during pregnancy in Africa: A literature review. Obstet Gynecol Surv 66(7):452‒459. https://doi.org/10.1097/OGX.0b013e318232a034
Ngole VM, Ekosse GE. 2012. Physico-chemistry, mineralogy, geochemistry and nutrient bioaccessibility of geophagic soils from Eastern Cape, South Africa. Sci Res Essays 7(12):1319‒1331. https://doi.org/10.5897/SRE11.1556
Nyawo T, Kesa H, Onyenweaku E. 2021. Food safety and hygiene: Knowledge, attitude and practices among food handlers. Afr J Hosp Tourism & Leisure 10(2):547‒558. https://doi.org/10.46222/ajhtl.19770720.117
Odangowei OI, Okiemute O. 2015. Geophagic practice and its possible health implications -A review. J Multidiscip Res 7(2):100‒110.
Onyenweaku EO, Ene-Obong HN, Oko GE, Williams IO. 2019. Contribution of eggs and other cholesterol-containing foods to total dietary cholesterol intake, and their influence on serum lipid profile of adults in Calabar, Nigeria. European J Nutr Food Saf 9(4):329‒340. https://doi.org/10.9734/ejnfs/2019/v9i430080
Onyenweaku EO. 2022. Consumer fruit preferences: The role of nutrition knowledge in fruit purchase and consumption. J Gizi Pangan 17(3):157‒166. https://doi.org/10.25182/jgp.2022.17.3.157-166
Onyenweaku EO. 2023. Chemical composition of Kaolin Clay (Nzu) and Bentonite Clay (Ulo) and consumption prevalence among women in Southern Nigeria. Niger Agric J 54(1):467‒477.
Phakoago MV, Ekosse GE, Odiyo JO. 2019. The prevalence of geophagic practices and causative reasons for geophagia in Sekhukhune area, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Trans R Soc South Africa 74(1):19‒26. https://doi.org/10.1080/0035919X.2019.1572669
Saathoff E, Olsen A, Kvalsvig JD, Geissler PW. 2002. Geophagy and its association with geohelminth infection in rural schoolchildren from Northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 96(5):485‒490. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0035-9203(02)90413-X
Shkembi B, Huppertz T. 2021. Calcium absorption from food products: Food Matrix Effects. Nutrients 14(1):180. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14010180
Shimokawa S. 2013. When does dietary knowledge matter to obesity and overweight prevention? Food Policy 38:35‒46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2012.09.001
Singh I, Singh P, Patkar P, Chaudhury S, Saldanha D. 2021. Geophagia: A case series. Ind Psychiatry J 30 (Suppl 1):S240‒S242. https://doi.org/10.4103/0972-6748.328819
Smith B, Rawlins BG, Cordeiro MJAR, Hutchins MG, Tiberindwa JV, Sserunjogi L, Tomkins AM. 2000. The bioaccessibility of essential and potentially toxic trace elements intropical soils from Mukono District, Uganda. J Geol Soc London 157(4):885–891. https://doi.org/10.1144/jgs.157.4.88
Taiye FA, Koduah G, Mork SAP. 2013. Geophagia clay soil as a source of mineral nutrients and toxicants. African J Food Agric Nutr Dev 13(1):7157–7170. https://doi.org/10.18697/ajfand.56.12580
Umudi EQ. 2017. Mineral composition of edible clays from the Ozanagogo, Delta State, Nigeria. International Journal of Chemistry and Chemical Processes 3(2):2545–2565.
Vermeer DE, Ferrell J. 1985. Nigerian Geophagical clay: A traditional anti-diarrhoeal pharmaceutical. Science 227(4687):634‒636. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.3969552
Walker ARP, Walker BF, Sookaria FI, Canaan RJ. 1997. Pica. Health 117(5):280‒284. https://doi.org/10.1177/146642409711700503
Wardle J, Parmenter K, Waller J. 2000. Nutrition knowledge and food intake. Appetite 34(3):269‒275. https://doi.org/10.1006/appe.1999.0311
Woywodt A, Kiss A. 1999. Perforation of the sigmoid colon due to geophagia. Arch Surg-Chicago 134(1):88‒89. https://doi.org/10.1001/archsurg.134.1.88
Authors
OnyenweakuE. O. (2023). Geophagia in Nigeria: Perceptions and Practices of Pregnant Mothers versus Possible Health Outcomes . Jurnal Gizi Dan Pangan, 18(3), 187-196. https://doi.org/10.25182/jgp.2023.18.3.187-196
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