The Resilience of Smallholder Layer-Chicken Farmers Throughout the COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence from Indonesia
Abstract
Smallholder layer-chicken farming in Indonesia is essential to ensure national food production, food security, and economic resilience. During the COVID-19 pandemic, small-scale layer-chicken farming exhibited adaptability. This study aims to assess the smallholder layer-chicken farmers resilience in Indonesia during the challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic. This research employed cross-sectional data collected from February to July 2023 from 114 smallholder layer chicken farmers in West Java, Central Java, and East Java using a purposive sampling technique. Data analysis used descriptive statistics, financial analysis, and the Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test. The results showed that the COVID-19 pandemic impacted the decline in the population and production of layer-chicken at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic but subsequently demonstrated an increase afterward. Financial analyses showed an increase in operational costs, specifically feed and labor, during the COVID-19 pandemic. The layer-chicken farms could adapt and maintain profitability amidst increasing operational costs. The findings showed that the COVID-19 pandemic significantly impacted increasing feed costs (p<0.05) and labor costs (p<0.05). The revenue-cost ratio remained relatively stable. The study also showed significant differences in profit levels before, during, and after the COVID-19 pandemic (p<0.05). Profit levels decreased during the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic and recovered afterward, showcasing the smallholder layer chicken farmer’s resilience during the COVID-19 pandemic. These findings offer valuable insights for policy formulation aimed at fortifying the resilience demonstrated by smallholder layer-chicken farming in Indonesia amidst the challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic and other potential crises in the future.
References
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Horst, M. & A. Marion. 2019. Racial, ethnic and gender inequities in farmland ownership and farming in the U.S. Agric. Human Values 36:1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-018-9883-3
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Nordhagen, S., U. Igbeka, H. Rowlands, R. S. Shine, E. Heneghan, & J. Tench. 2021. COVID-19 and small enterprises in the food supply chain: Early impacts and implications for longer-term food system resilience in low- and middle-income countries. World Dev. 141:105405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105405
O’Connell, C., R. Gay, N. McDonald, & S. Tayal. 2021. COVID connections: Lessons from adaptations to COVID‐19 as strategies for building food system resilience. Cult. Agric. Food Environ. 43:123–136. https://doi.org/10.1111/cuag.12276
Pan, D., J. Yang, G. Zhou, & F. Kong. 2020. The influence of COVID-19 on agricultural economy and emergency mitigation measures in China: A text mining analysis. PLoS One 15:e0241167. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0241167
Pu, M. & Y. Zhong. 2020. Rising concerns over agricultural production as COVID-19 spreads: Lessons from China. Glob. Food Sec. 26:100409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100409
Pyndick, R. S. & D. L. Rubinfeld. 2015. Microeconomics, Eight Edition. Pearson Education, Inc.
Sattar, A. Al, R. Mahmud, Md. A. S. Mohsin, N. N. Chisty, Md. H. Uddin, N. Irin, T. Barnett, G. Fournie, E. Houghton, & Md. A. Hoque. 2021. COVID-19 impact on poultry production and distribution networks in Bangladesh. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 5:714649. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2021.714649
Setiadi, A., S. I. Santoso, S. Nurfadillah, K. Prayoga, & J. Mariyono. 2022. Economics of egg price, consumption, and income of laying hen farmers during of COVID-19 pandemic in Central Java, Indonesia. Agrisocionomics: Jurnal Sosial Ekonomi Kebijakan Pertanian 6:394–401.
Sholihin, N., N. Haryuni, & L. Lestariningsih. 2022. The impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on the feasibility of the laying hens business in Sumberejo village, Blitar Regency, East Java Province, Indonesia. J. Dev. Res. 6:131–136. https://doi.org/10.28926/jdr.v6i1.210
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Attia, Y. A., Md. T. Rahman, Md. J. Hossain, S. Basiouni, A. F. Khafaga, A. A. Shehata, & H. M. Hafez. 2022. Poultry production and sustainability in developing countries under the COVID-19 Crisis: Lessons learned. Animals 12:644. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12050644
Bamidele, O., O. M. Akinsola, A. Yakubu, W. A. Hassan, U. E. Ogundu, & T. A. Amole. 2023. Growth performance, survivability and profitability of improved smallholder chicken genetics in Nigeria: A COVID-19 intervention study. Front. Genet. 13:1033654. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2022.1033654
Bamidele, O. & T. A. Amole. 2021. Impact of COVID-19 on smallholder poultry farmers in Nigeria. Sustainability 13:11475. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132011475
Belarmino, L. C., M. N. Pabsdorf, & A. D. Padula. 2023. Impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on the production costs and competitiveness of the Brazilian chicken meat chain. Economies 11:238. https://doi.org/10.3390/economies11090238
Biswal, J., K. Vijayalakshmy, & H. Rahman. 2020. Impact of COVID-19 and associated lockdown on livestock and poultry sectors in India. Vet. World 13:1928–1933. https://doi.org/10.14202/vetworld.2020.1928-1933
Boni, M. F., A. P. Galvani, A. L. Wickelgren, & A. Malani. 2013. Economic epidemiology of avian influenza on smallholder poultry farms. Theor. Popul. Biol. 90:135-144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tpb.2013.10.001
Clark, C. E. F., Y. Akter, A. Hungerford, P. Thomson, M. R. Islam, P. J. Groves, & C. J. O’Shea. 2019. The intake pattern and feed preference of layer hens selected for high or low feed conversion ratio. PLoS One 14:e0222304. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0222304
Conover, W. J. 1999. Practical Nonparametric Statistics (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Das, P. K. & I. Samanta. 2021. Role of backyard poultry in South-East Asian countries: Post COVID-19 perspective. Worlds Poult. Sci. J. 77:415–426. https://doi.org/10.1080/00439339.2021.1893620
Dixon, J. M., J. Weerahewa, J. Hellin, M. F. Rola-Rubzen, J. Huang, S. Kumar, A. Das, M. E. Qureshi, T. J. Krupnik, K. Shideed, M. L. Jat, P. V. V. Prasad, S. Yadav, A. Irshad, A. Asanaliev, A. Abugalieva, A. Karimov, B. Bhattarai, C. Q. Balgos, F. Benu, H. Ehara, J. Pant, J. Sarmiento, J. Newby, J. Pretty, H. Tokuda, H. Weyerhaeuser, L. Digal, L. Li, M. Sarkar, M. Abedin, P. Schreinemachers, Q. Grafton, R. Sharma, S. Saidzoda, S. Lopez-Ridaura, S. Coffey, S. Kam, S. Win, S. Praneetvatakul, T. Maraseni, V. Touch, W. Liang, Y. Saharawat, & J. Timsina. 2021. Response and resilience of Asian agrifood systems to COVID-19: An assessment across twenty-five countries and four regional farming and food systems. Agric. Syst. 193:103168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2021.103168
Durant, J. L., L. Asprooth, R. E. Galt, S. P. Schmulevich, G. M. Manser, & N. Pinzón. 2023. Farm resilience during the COVID-19 pandemic: The case of California direct market farmers. Agric. Syst. 204:103532. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2022.103532
Ermanda, A. P., R. D. Haloho, W. S. Nugraha, T. F. Silitonga, B. P. Febrina, I. Irmayanti, N. A. Pratiwi, & A. A. Mahanani. 2023. Impact of the covid-19 pandemic on poultry feed distribution in Lima Puluh Kota District, West Sumatera Province. Agrisocionomics: Jurnal Sosial Ekonomi Pertanian 7:279–287.
Esiegwu, A. C. & R. D. Ejike. 2021. Effects of covid-19 on poultry production in south-east agro-ecological zone of Nigeria. Nigerian Journal Animal Production 48:253–261. https://doi.org/10.51791/njap.v48i4.3003
Evalia, N. A., H. Harianto, R. Nurmalina, & D. B. Hakim. 2022. Price transmission between input and output markets: The Covid-19 effect on laying hens’ industry in Indonesia. Jurnal Manajemen Agribisnis 19:418-427. https://doi.org/10.17358/jma.19.3.418
Fan, S., P. Teng, P. Chew, G. Smith, & L. Copeland. 2021. Food system resilience and COVID-19 – Lessons from the Asian experience. Glob. Food Sec. 28:100501. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2021.100501
Fang, P., B. Belton, X. Zhang, & H. Ei Win. 2021. Impacts of COVID-19 on Myanmar’s chicken and egg sector, with implications for the sustainable development goals. Agric. Syst. 190:103094. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2021.103094
Hafez, H. M., Y. A. Attia, F. Bovera, M. E. Abd El-Hack, A. F. Khafaga, & M. C. de Oliveira. 2021. Influence of COVID-19 on the poultry production and environment. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 28:44833–44844. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-15052-5
Hamid, M. A., M. A. Rahman, S. Ahmed, & K. M. Hossain. 2016. Status of poultry industry in Bangladesh and the role of private sector for its development. Asian Journal Poultry Science 11:1–13. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajpsaj.2017.1.13
Hatta, M., Sulakhudin, R. Burhansyah, G. C. Kifli, D. O. Dewi, J. C. Kilmanun, D. Permana, K. Supriadi, R. Warman, H. Azis, P. T. Santari, & D. P. Widiastuti. 2023. Food self-sufficiency: Managing the newly-opened tidal paddy fields for rice farming in Indonesia (A case study in West Kalimantan, Indonesia). Heliyon 9:e13839. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13839
Hayes, D. J., L. L. Schulz, C. E. Hart, & K. L. Jacobs. 2021. A descriptive analysis of the COVID‐19 impacts on U.S. pork, turkey, and egg markets. Agribusiness 37:122–141. https://doi.org/10.1002/agr.21674
Holt-Giménez, E. & M. A. Altieri. 2012. Agroecology, food sovereignty and the new green revolution. Journal Sustainable Agriculture 120904081412003. https://doi.org/10.1080/10440046.2012.716388
Horst, M. & A. Marion. 2019. Racial, ethnic and gender inequities in farmland ownership and farming in the U.S. Agric. Human Values 36:1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-018-9883-3
Kansiime, M. K., J. A. Tambo, I. Mugambi, M. Bundi, A. Kara, & C. Owuor. 2021. COVID-19 implications on household income and food security in Kenya and Uganda: Findings from a rapid assessment. World Dev. 137:105199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105199
Kim, C. H. & H. K. Kang. 2022. Effects of Energy and protein levels on laying performance, egg quality, blood parameters, blood biochemistry, and apparent total tract digestibility on laying hens in an aviary system. Animals 12:3513. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12243513
Marsden, A. R., K. K. Zander, & J. A. Lassa. 2023. Smallholder farming during COVID-19: A systematic review concerning impacts, adaptations, barriers, policy, and planning for future pandemics. Land 12:404. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12020404
Ministry of Agriculture. 2022. Outlook Komoditas Peternakan Telur Ayam Ras Petelur. Center for Agricultural Data and Information Systems, Ministry of Agriculture, Republic of Indonesia.
Mishra, P., A. Golaviya, K. Panchal, A. Hinsu, K. Yadav, G. Fournié, T. Barnett, P. Koringa, H. U. I. Paleja, & R. Dasgupta. 2023. Exploring the impact of COVID-19 and the associated lockdown on the production, distribution, and consumption of poultry products in Gujarat, India: A qualitative study. Poultry 2:395–410. https://doi.org/10.3390/poultry2030029
Mufeeth, M. & M. Kaldeen. 2022. Impact of COVID-19 outbreak on smallholder producers of farming products supply to tourism business in Sri Lanka. In Tourism and Hospitality in Asia: Crisis, Resilience and Recovery (p. 125–140). Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5763-5_9
Nordhagen, S., U. Igbeka, H. Rowlands, R. S. Shine, E. Heneghan, & J. Tench. 2021. COVID-19 and small enterprises in the food supply chain: Early impacts and implications for longer-term food system resilience in low- and middle-income countries. World Dev. 141:105405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105405
O’Connell, C., R. Gay, N. McDonald, & S. Tayal. 2021. COVID connections: Lessons from adaptations to COVID‐19 as strategies for building food system resilience. Cult. Agric. Food Environ. 43:123–136. https://doi.org/10.1111/cuag.12276
Pan, D., J. Yang, G. Zhou, & F. Kong. 2020. The influence of COVID-19 on agricultural economy and emergency mitigation measures in China: A text mining analysis. PLoS One 15:e0241167. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0241167
Pu, M. & Y. Zhong. 2020. Rising concerns over agricultural production as COVID-19 spreads: Lessons from China. Glob. Food Sec. 26:100409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100409
Pyndick, R. S. & D. L. Rubinfeld. 2015. Microeconomics, Eight Edition. Pearson Education, Inc.
Sattar, A. Al, R. Mahmud, Md. A. S. Mohsin, N. N. Chisty, Md. H. Uddin, N. Irin, T. Barnett, G. Fournie, E. Houghton, & Md. A. Hoque. 2021. COVID-19 impact on poultry production and distribution networks in Bangladesh. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 5:714649. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2021.714649
Setiadi, A., S. I. Santoso, S. Nurfadillah, K. Prayoga, & J. Mariyono. 2022. Economics of egg price, consumption, and income of laying hen farmers during of COVID-19 pandemic in Central Java, Indonesia. Agrisocionomics: Jurnal Sosial Ekonomi Kebijakan Pertanian 6:394–401.
Sholihin, N., N. Haryuni, & L. Lestariningsih. 2022. The impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on the feasibility of the laying hens business in Sumberejo village, Blitar Regency, East Java Province, Indonesia. J. Dev. Res. 6:131–136. https://doi.org/10.28926/jdr.v6i1.210
Syahlani, S. P., N. M. A. Kusuma Dewi, & G. A. Insani. 2021. Resiliency management of layer poultry farm business during COVID-19 pandemic in the Yogyakarta special Province. Livest. Anim. Res. 19:217. https://doi.org/10.20961/lar.v19i2.51971
Taiye, O. B., O. B. Kehinde, O. B. Oluyemisi, & O. A. Omobolanle. 2022. Effect of COVID-19 pandemic on egg production and income of the marketers among poultry farmers in ido local government area of Oyo State, Nigeria. Russ. J. Agric. Socioecon. Sci. 8:167–175.
Tittonell, P., M. Fernandez, V. E. El Mujtar, P. V. Preiss, S. Sarapura, L. Laborda, M. A. Mendonça, V. E. Alvarez, G. B. Fernandes, P. Petersen, & I. M. Cardoso. 2021. Emerging responses to the COVID-19 crisis from family farming and the agroecology movement in Latin America – A rediscovery of food, farmers and collective action. Agric. Syst. 190:103098. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2021.103098
Walker, S. & J. I. Baum. 2022. Eggs as an affordable source of nutrients for adults and children living in food-insecure environments. Nutr. Rev. 80:178–186. https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuab019
Weersink, A., M. von Massow, N. Bannon, J. Ifft, J. Maples, K. McEwan, M. G. S. McKendree, C. Nicholson, A. Novakovic, A. Rangarajan, T. Richards, B. Rickard, J. Rude, M. Schipanski, G. Schnitkey, L. Schulz, D. Schuurman, K. Schwartzkopf-Genswein, M. Stephenson, J. Thompson & K. Wood. 2021. COVID-19 and the agri-food system in the United States and Canada. Agric. Syst. 188:103039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2020.103039
Authors
Priyono, KusumaningrumD. A., RusdianaS., PraharaniL., WidiawatiY., KostamanT., HerliatikaA., PratiwiN., AzizahN., & IjiP. A. (2024). The Resilience of Smallholder Layer-Chicken Farmers Throughout the COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence from Indonesia. Tropical Animal Science Journal, 47(3), 392-401. https://doi.org/10.5398/tasj.2024.47.3.392
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