A Three Decades Assessment of Forest Cover Changes in The Mountainous Tropical Forest of Timor Island, Indonesia
Abstract
The Mutis Timau Forest Complex (MTFC), a remained mountainous tropical forest area in Timor Island, located in Indonesia and Timor-Leste border region, tends to decrease gradually. Unfortunately, declined forest area and their rates are not explained by reliable spatial and quantitative information. This study attempts to assess the extent and rate of forest cover changes in the MTFC during the last 30 years. We used Landsat images on three different dates: 1987, 1999, and 2017. Then, we applied a hybrid classification approach that combines the application of Forest Canopy Density model-obtained from four biophysical indices and supervised classification-maximum likelihood classification to generate land cover maps. Finally, we detected forest cover change by comparing land cover map in different years. Results illustrated that the extent and annual rate of deforestation, forest degradation, forest regrowth, and afforestation during 1987–2017 were 2,232 ha (0.36%), 4,820 ha (1.10%), 1,475 ha (0.69%), and 1,252 ha (0.40%), respectively. Such results are important for the MTFC authority to establish appropriate plan and strategies in forest management activities and can be used to support some policies/programs for combating deforestation and forest degradation.
References
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Geist, H. J., & Lambin, E. F. (2002). Proximate causes and underlying driving forces of tropical deforestation. BioScience, 52(2), 142–150. https://doi.org/ 10.1641/0006-3568(2002)052[0143:PCAUDF] 2.0.CO;2
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Kim, C. (2016). Land use classification and land use change analysis using satellite images in Lombok Island, Indonesia. Forest Science and Technology, 12(4), 183–191. https://doi.org/10.1080/21580103.2016. 1147498
King, K. L., & Locke, D. H. (2013). A comparison of three methods for measuring local urban tree canopy cover. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, 39(2), 62–67.
Kurniadi R., Purnomo, H., Wijayanto, H., & Fuah, A. M. (2017). Model pengelolaan ternak di sekitar Hutan Gunung Mutis dan dampaknya terhadap kelestarian hutan. Jurnal Ilmu Kehutanan, 11, 156–172.
Lentz, C., Malo, M., & Bowe, M. (1998). Environmental management in Gunung Mutis. International Association for the Study of Common Property, 10–14 June 1998, Vancouver, Canada.
Linkie, M., Rood, E., & Smith, R. J. (2010). Modelling the effectiveness of Enforcement strategies for avoiding tropical deforestation in Kerinci Seblat National Park, Sumatra. Biodiversity Conservation, 19, 973–984. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-009-9754-8
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Margono, B. A., Potavov, P. V., Turubanova, S., Stolle, F., & Hansen, M. C. (2014). Primary forest cover loss in Indonesia over 2000–2012. Nature Climate Change. https://doi.org/10.1038/NCLIMATE2277
Margono, B. A. (2014). Advancing Indonesian forest resource monitoring using multi-source remotely sensed imagery [dissertation]. Maryland: University of Maryland.
Margono, B. A., Goetz, S. J., Hansen, M., Houghton, R. A., Broich, M.,
Hansen, M., & Turubanova, S. (2012). Mapping and monitoring deforestation and forest degradation in Sumatra (Indonesia) using Landsat time series data sets from 1990 to 2010. Environmental Research Letter, 7(2012) 034010 (16pp). https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/7/3/034010
Miettinen, J., Stibig, H-J., & Achard, F. (2014). Remote sensing of forest degradation in Southeast Asia-Aiming for a regional view through 5–30 m satellite data. Global Ecology and Conservation, 2, 24–36. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.gecco.2014.07.007
Mitchell, A. L., Rosenqvist, A., & Mora, B. (2017). Current remote sensing approaches to monitor forest degradation in support of countries measurement, reporting and verification (MRV) systems for REDD+. Carbon Balance and Management, 12, 9. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s13021-017-0078-9
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Mon, M. S., Mizoue, N., Htun, N. Z., Kajisa, T., & Yoshida, S. (2012). Estimating forest canopy density of tropical mixed deciduous vegetation using Landsat data: A comparison of three classification approaches. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 33(4), 1042–1057. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431161. 2010.549851
Montgomery, R. (2015). Will no one plant a tree in Indonesia? Yes, the poor will, and on islands not known for their forests: One such is Timor. Asia Research Centre Working Paper 69. Asia Research Centre (ARC) London School of Economics & Political Science Houghton Street, London, UK.
Muhammad, A., Prasetyo L. B., & Kartono, A. P. (2014). Pemetaan perubahan forest canopy density di KPH Kuningan. Paper presented at National Seminar on Remote Sensing 2014. Bogor: Indonesia.
Mulyani, M., & Jepson, P. (2013). REDD+ and forest governance in Indonesia: A Multistakeholder study of perceived challenges and opportunities. Journal of Environment and Development, 22(3), 261–283. https://doi.org/10.1177/1070496513494203
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Pujiono, E., Lee, W. K., Kwak, D. A., & Lee, J. Y. (2011). Assessing the extent and rate of deforestation in the mountanious tropical forest. Korean Journal of Remote Sensing, 27(3), 315–328.
Purwanto, J., Rusolono, T., & Prasetyo L. B. (2015). Spatial model of deforestation in Kalimantan from 2000 to 2013. Jurnal Manajemen Hutan Tropika, 21(3), 110–118. https://doi.org/10.7226/jtfm.21.3.110
Puyravaud, J. (2003). Standardizing the calculation of the annual rate of deforestation. Forest Ecology and Management, 177, 593–596. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S0378-1127(02)00335-3
Redy, M. B., & Blah, B. (2009). Topographic normalization of satellite imagery for image classification in India. Progress in Physical Geography, 33(6), 815–836. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309133309351048
Rikimaru, A., Roy, P. S., & Miyateke, S. (2002). Tropical forest cover density mapping. Tropical Ecology, 43(1), 39–47. Retrieved from https://tropecol.com/pdf/open/ PDF_43_1/43104.pdf
Santika, T., Meijaard, E., Budiharta, S., Law, E. A., Kusworo, A., Hutabarat, J. A., ... Wilson. K. A. (2017). Community forest management in Indonesia: Avoided deforestation in the context of anthropogenic and climate complexities. Global Environmental Change, 46, 60–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2017.08.002
Sumanto, S. E., & Pujiono, E. (2009). Pengelolaan sumber daya alam secara tradisional di Timor Barat: Studi sosio-ekologi di Kabupaten Timor Tengah Selatan. Info Sosial dan Ekonomi Kehutanan, 9(3), 179–186.
Suwarno, A., Hein, L., & Sumarga, E. (2015). Governance, decentralization and deforestation: The case of Central Kalimantan Province, Indonesia. Quarterly Journal of International Agriculture, 54(1), 77–100.
Themistocleus, K., Hadjimitsis, D.G., Retalis, A., & Chrysoulakis, N. 2012. The identification of pseudo-invariant targets using ground field spectroscopy measurement intended for removal of atmospheric effects from satellite imagery: a case study of Limassol area in Cyprus. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 33(22): 7240–7256. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 01431161.2012.700425
Tichý, L. (2016). Field test of canopy cover estimation by hemispherical photographs taken with a smartphone. Journal of Vegetation Science, 27, 427–435. https://doi.org/10.1111/ jvs.12350
Tole, L. (2002). An estimate of forest cover extent and change in Jamaica using Landsat MSS data, International Journal of Remote Sensing, 23(1), 91–106. https:/doi.org/10.1080/01431160010014837
Turner, B. L. II, Skole, D., Sanderson, S., Fischer, G., Fresco, L., & Leemans, R. (1995). Land-Use and Land-Cover Change; Science/Research Plan. IGBP Report No.35, HDP Report No.7. IGBP and HDP, Stockholm and Geneva.
Ward, J. S., Worthley, T. E., Smallidge, P. J., & Bennet, K. P. (2006). Northeastern forest regeneration handbook - A guide for forest owners, harvesting practitioners, and public officials. Newtown Square: USDA Forest Service.
Wijaya, P. A., Saleh, M. B., & Tiryana, T. (2015). Spatial model of deforestation in Jambi Province for the period 1990–2011. Jurnal Manajemen Hutan Tropika, 21(3), 128–137. https://doi.org/10.7226/jtfm.21.3.128
Young, N. E., Anderson, R. S., Chignell, S. M., Vorster, A. G., Lawrence, R., & Evangelista, P. H. (2017). A survival guide to Landsat preprocessing. Ecology, 98(4), 920–932. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.1730
Ahmad, A., Saleh, M. B., & Rusolono, T. (2016). Model spasial deforestasi di KPHP Poigar, Provinsi Sulawesi Utara. Jurnal Penelitian Kehutanan Wallacea, 5(2), 159–169.
Bauer, M. E., Burk, T. E., Ek, A. R., Coppin P. R., Lime, S. D., Walsh, T. A., … Heinzen, D. F. (1994). Satellite inventory of Minnesota Forest Resources. Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing, 60(3), 287–298.
[BPS] Badan Pusat Statistik. (2016). Persentase rumah tangga menurut provinsi dan bahan bakar utama untuk memasak Tahun 2001, 2007–2016, [01 August 2018] Retrieved from https://www.bps.go.id/ statictable/2014/09/10%2000:00:00/1364/persentase-rumah-tangga-menurut-provinsi-dan-bahan-bakar-utama-untuk-memasak-tahun-2001-2007-2016.html
Broich, M., Hansen, M., Stolle, F., Potapov, P., Margono, B. A., & Adusei, B. (2011). Remote sensed forest cover loss shows high spatial and temporal variation across Sumatera and Kalimantan, Indonesia 2000–2008. Environmental Research Letter, 6. https://doi.org/1748-9326
Burgess, R., Hansen, M., Olken, B., & Sieber, S. (2010). The political economy of deforestation in the tropics. Coventry, UK: The University of Warwick.
Candrashekhar, B. M., Saran, S., Raju, P. L. N., & Roy, P. S. (2005). Forest canopy density stratification: How relevant is biophysical spectral response modeling approach? Geocarto International, 20(1), 15–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/10106040508542332
Congalton, R. G., & Green, K. (1999). Assessing the accuracy of remotely sensed data: Principles and practice. New York: Lewis Publishers.
Deka, J., Tripathi, O. P., & Khan, M. L. (2013). Implementation of forest canopy density model to monitor tropical deforestation. Journal Indian Society Remote Sensing, 41(2), 469–475. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s12524-012-0224-5
Elz, I., Tansey, K., Page, S. E., & Trivedi, M. (2015). Modelling deforestation and land cover transition of tropical peatland in Sumatra, Indonesia using remote sensed land cover data set. Land, 4, 670–687. https://doi.org/10.3390/land4030670
Farida, W. R., Triono, T., Handayani, T. H., & Ismail. (2005). Pemilihan jenis tumbuhan sumber pakan dan tempat bersarang kuskus (Phalanger sp.) di Cagar Alam Gunung Mutis, NTT. Biodiversitas, 6(1), 50–54. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d060110
Fuller, D. O., Meijaard, E. M., Christy, L., & Jessup, T. C. (2010). Spatial assessment of threats to biodiversity within East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Applied Geography,30, 416–425. https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1467-9493.2006.00235.x
Gaveau, D. L. A., Linkie, M., Suyadi, Levang, P., & Leader-Williams, N. (2009). Three decades of deforestation in southwest Sumatra: Effects of coffe prices, law enforcement and rural poverty. Biological Conservation, 142, 597–605. https://doi.org/10.10016/j.biocon.2008. 11.024
Geist, H. J., & Lambin, E. F. (2002). Proximate causes and underlying driving forces of tropical deforestation. BioScience, 52(2), 142–150. https://doi.org/ 10.1641/0006-3568(2002)052[0143:PCAUDF] 2.0.CO;2
Hajj, M. E., Begue, A., Lafrance, B., Hagolle, O., Dedieu, G., & Rumeau. (2008). Relative radiometric normalization and atmospheric correction of a SPOT 5 time series. Sensors, 8, 2774–2791. https://doi.org/10.3390/ s8042774
Herold, M., Román-Cuesta, R. M., Mollicone, D., Hirata, Y., van Laake, P., Asner, G. P., ... MacDicken, K. (2011). Options for monitoring and estimating historical carbon emissions from forest degradation in the context of REDD+. Carbon Balance Management, 6, 13. https://doi.org/10. 1186/1750-0680-6-13
Hosonuma, N., Herold, M., de Sy, V., de Fries, R. S., Brockhaus, M., Verchot, L., … Romijn, E. (2012). An assessment of deforestation and forest degradation drivers in developing countries. Environmental Research Letter, 7(4), 044–009. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/7/4/044009
Jensen, J. (2005). Introductory digital image processing: A remote sensing perspective (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
Junior, O. A. C., Guimaraes, R. F., Silva, N. C., Gillespie, A. R., Gomes, R. A. T., Silva, C. R., & Carvalho, A. P. F. (2013). Radiometric normalization of temporal images combining automatic detection of pseudo-invariant features from the distance and similarity spectral measures, density scatterplot analysis and robust regression. Remote Sensing, 5, 2763–2794. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs5062763
Kim, C. (2016). Land use classification and land use change analysis using satellite images in Lombok Island, Indonesia. Forest Science and Technology, 12(4), 183–191. https://doi.org/10.1080/21580103.2016. 1147498
King, K. L., & Locke, D. H. (2013). A comparison of three methods for measuring local urban tree canopy cover. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry, 39(2), 62–67.
Kurniadi R., Purnomo, H., Wijayanto, H., & Fuah, A. M. (2017). Model pengelolaan ternak di sekitar Hutan Gunung Mutis dan dampaknya terhadap kelestarian hutan. Jurnal Ilmu Kehutanan, 11, 156–172.
Lentz, C., Malo, M., & Bowe, M. (1998). Environmental management in Gunung Mutis. International Association for the Study of Common Property, 10–14 June 1998, Vancouver, Canada.
Linkie, M., Rood, E., & Smith, R. J. (2010). Modelling the effectiveness of Enforcement strategies for avoiding tropical deforestation in Kerinci Seblat National Park, Sumatra. Biodiversity Conservation, 19, 973–984. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-009-9754-8
MacDonald, E. A., Collins, M., Johnson, P. J., Clayton L. M., Malhi, Y., Fisher, J. B., ... MacDonald, D. W. (2011). Wildlife conservation and reduced emission from deforestation in a case study of Nantu National Park, Sulawesi. Environmental Science and Policy, 14, 697–708. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2011.03.001
Margono, B. A., Potavov, P. V., Turubanova, S., Stolle, F., & Hansen, M. C. (2014). Primary forest cover loss in Indonesia over 2000–2012. Nature Climate Change. https://doi.org/10.1038/NCLIMATE2277
Margono, B. A. (2014). Advancing Indonesian forest resource monitoring using multi-source remotely sensed imagery [dissertation]. Maryland: University of Maryland.
Margono, B. A., Goetz, S. J., Hansen, M., Houghton, R. A., Broich, M.,
Hansen, M., & Turubanova, S. (2012). Mapping and monitoring deforestation and forest degradation in Sumatra (Indonesia) using Landsat time series data sets from 1990 to 2010. Environmental Research Letter, 7(2012) 034010 (16pp). https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/7/3/034010
Miettinen, J., Stibig, H-J., & Achard, F. (2014). Remote sensing of forest degradation in Southeast Asia-Aiming for a regional view through 5–30 m satellite data. Global Ecology and Conservation, 2, 24–36. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.gecco.2014.07.007
Mitchell, A. L., Rosenqvist, A., & Mora, B. (2017). Current remote sensing approaches to monitor forest degradation in support of countries measurement, reporting and verification (MRV) systems for REDD+. Carbon Balance and Management, 12, 9. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s13021-017-0078-9
[MoEF] Ministry of Environment and Forestry, Republic of Indonesia. (2018). The state of Indonesia's forest 2018. Jakarta: Ministry of Environment and Forestry, Republic of Indonesia.
Mon, M. S., Mizoue, N., Htun, N. Z., Kajisa, T., & Yoshida, S. (2012). Estimating forest canopy density of tropical mixed deciduous vegetation using Landsat data: A comparison of three classification approaches. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 33(4), 1042–1057. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431161. 2010.549851
Montgomery, R. (2015). Will no one plant a tree in Indonesia? Yes, the poor will, and on islands not known for their forests: One such is Timor. Asia Research Centre Working Paper 69. Asia Research Centre (ARC) London School of Economics & Political Science Houghton Street, London, UK.
Muhammad, A., Prasetyo L. B., & Kartono, A. P. (2014). Pemetaan perubahan forest canopy density di KPH Kuningan. Paper presented at National Seminar on Remote Sensing 2014. Bogor: Indonesia.
Mulyani, M., & Jepson, P. (2013). REDD+ and forest governance in Indonesia: A Multistakeholder study of perceived challenges and opportunities. Journal of Environment and Development, 22(3), 261–283. https://doi.org/10.1177/1070496513494203
Price, M. F., Gratzer, G., Duguma, L. A., Kohler, T., Maselli, D., & Romeo, R. (editors). (2011). Mountain forests in a changing world - Realizing values, addressing challenges. Rome: FAO/MPS and SDC.
Pujiono, E., Lee, W. K., Kwak, D. A., & Lee, J. Y. (2011). Assessing the extent and rate of deforestation in the mountanious tropical forest. Korean Journal of Remote Sensing, 27(3), 315–328.
Purwanto, J., Rusolono, T., & Prasetyo L. B. (2015). Spatial model of deforestation in Kalimantan from 2000 to 2013. Jurnal Manajemen Hutan Tropika, 21(3), 110–118. https://doi.org/10.7226/jtfm.21.3.110
Puyravaud, J. (2003). Standardizing the calculation of the annual rate of deforestation. Forest Ecology and Management, 177, 593–596. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S0378-1127(02)00335-3
Redy, M. B., & Blah, B. (2009). Topographic normalization of satellite imagery for image classification in India. Progress in Physical Geography, 33(6), 815–836. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309133309351048
Rikimaru, A., Roy, P. S., & Miyateke, S. (2002). Tropical forest cover density mapping. Tropical Ecology, 43(1), 39–47. Retrieved from https://tropecol.com/pdf/open/ PDF_43_1/43104.pdf
Santika, T., Meijaard, E., Budiharta, S., Law, E. A., Kusworo, A., Hutabarat, J. A., ... Wilson. K. A. (2017). Community forest management in Indonesia: Avoided deforestation in the context of anthropogenic and climate complexities. Global Environmental Change, 46, 60–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2017.08.002
Sumanto, S. E., & Pujiono, E. (2009). Pengelolaan sumber daya alam secara tradisional di Timor Barat: Studi sosio-ekologi di Kabupaten Timor Tengah Selatan. Info Sosial dan Ekonomi Kehutanan, 9(3), 179–186.
Suwarno, A., Hein, L., & Sumarga, E. (2015). Governance, decentralization and deforestation: The case of Central Kalimantan Province, Indonesia. Quarterly Journal of International Agriculture, 54(1), 77–100.
Themistocleus, K., Hadjimitsis, D.G., Retalis, A., & Chrysoulakis, N. 2012. The identification of pseudo-invariant targets using ground field spectroscopy measurement intended for removal of atmospheric effects from satellite imagery: a case study of Limassol area in Cyprus. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 33(22): 7240–7256. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 01431161.2012.700425
Tichý, L. (2016). Field test of canopy cover estimation by hemispherical photographs taken with a smartphone. Journal of Vegetation Science, 27, 427–435. https://doi.org/10.1111/ jvs.12350
Tole, L. (2002). An estimate of forest cover extent and change in Jamaica using Landsat MSS data, International Journal of Remote Sensing, 23(1), 91–106. https:/doi.org/10.1080/01431160010014837
Turner, B. L. II, Skole, D., Sanderson, S., Fischer, G., Fresco, L., & Leemans, R. (1995). Land-Use and Land-Cover Change; Science/Research Plan. IGBP Report No.35, HDP Report No.7. IGBP and HDP, Stockholm and Geneva.
Ward, J. S., Worthley, T. E., Smallidge, P. J., & Bennet, K. P. (2006). Northeastern forest regeneration handbook - A guide for forest owners, harvesting practitioners, and public officials. Newtown Square: USDA Forest Service.
Wijaya, P. A., Saleh, M. B., & Tiryana, T. (2015). Spatial model of deforestation in Jambi Province for the period 1990–2011. Jurnal Manajemen Hutan Tropika, 21(3), 128–137. https://doi.org/10.7226/jtfm.21.3.128
Young, N. E., Anderson, R. S., Chignell, S. M., Vorster, A. G., Lawrence, R., & Evangelista, P. H. (2017). A survival guide to Landsat preprocessing. Ecology, 98(4), 920–932. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.1730
Authors
PujionoE., SadonoR., HartonoH., & ImronM. A. (2019). A Three Decades Assessment of Forest Cover Changes in The Mountainous Tropical Forest of Timor Island, Indonesia. Jurnal Manajemen Hutan Tropika, 25(1), 51. https://doi.org/10.7226/jtfm.25.1.51
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