The Influence of Agricultural Extension Services and Livelihood Capitals on Farmers' Climate Resilience in West Java, Indonesia: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach
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Submitted
May 27, 2025
Accepted
August 25, 2025
Published
October 2, 2025
Keywords:
-
agricultural extension, climate change, livelihood capitals, resilience
Abstract
This study analyzes how agricultural extension services and various forms of livelihood capital influence rice farmers' climate resilience and farm sustainability in West Java, Indonesia. 371 Karawang and Subang Regencies respondents were surveyed using a structured questionnaire covering farmers engaged in intensive and semi-intensive rice production systems. The study employed Structural Equation Modeling using Partial Least Squares (SEM-PLS) to assess the direct and indirect effects of human, social, natural, financial, and physical capitals and extension services on resilience capacity and farming sustainability. The results show that human capital, natural capital, social capital, financial capital, and extension services all significantly positively affect resilience capacity. In turn, resilience capacity is a key mediating variable contributing to farm sustainability. Among the variables analyzed, agricultural extension services strongly influenced sustainability outcomes. Furthermore, the Importance-Performance Map Analysis (IPMA) reveals that financial and natural capital are high-priority areas for intervention due to their strategic influence and current performance gaps. These results underscore the need to enhance farmer access to inclusive and adaptive financial services, improve natural resource governance, and strengthen the quality and contextual relevance of agricultural extension. The study recommends a shift toward a pluralistic and resilience-oriented extension model that integrates local knowledge, livelihood assets, and climate adaptation strategies to build sustainable and climate-resilient farming systems.
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References
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42. Birner, R.; Davis, K.; Pender, J.; Nkonya, E.; Anandajayasekeram, P.; Ekboir, J.; Mbabu, A.; Spielman, D.J.; Horna, D.; Benin, S.; et al. From Best Practice to Best Fit: A Framework for Designing and Analyzing Pluralistic Agricultural Advisory Services Worldwide. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension 2009, 15, 341–355, doi:10.1080/13892240903309595.
43. Darma, R.; O’Connor, P.; Akzar, R.; Tenriawaru, A.N.; Amandaria, R. Enhancing Sustainability in Rice Farming: Institutional Responses to Floods and Droughts in Pump-Based Irrigation Systems in Wajo District, Indonesia. Sustainability (Switzerland) 2025, 17, doi:10.3390/su17083501.
44. Hua, H.H.; Brown, P.R. Social Capital Enhances the Resilience of Agricultural Cooperatives: Comparative Case Studies in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. World Development Sustainability 2024, 5, doi:10.1016/j.wds.2024.100170.
45. Tanti, P.C.; Jena, P.R. Perception on Climate Change, Access to Extension Service and Energy Sources Determining Adoption of Climate-Smart Practices: A Multivariate Approach. J Arid Environ 2023, 212, doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2023.104961.
46. Hendrawan, D.; Chrisendo, D.; Musshoff, O. Strengthening Oil Palm Smallholder Farmers’ Resilience to Future Industrial Challenges. Sci Rep 2024, 14, doi:10.1038/s41598-024-62426-z.
47. Guthrie, G. Farm Debt and the Over-Exploitation of Natural Capital Farm Debt and the Over-Exploitation of Natural Capital ⇤; 2023;
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49. Tong, Q.; Yuan, X.; Zhang, L.; Zhang, J.; Li, W. The Impact of Livelihood Capitals on Farmers’ Adoption of Climate-Smart Agriculture Practices: Evidence from Rice Production in the Jianghan Plain, China. Clim Risk Manag 2024, 43, doi:10.1016/j.crm.2023.100583.
50. Slijper, T.; de Mey, Y.; Poortvliet, P.M.; Meuwissen, M.P.M. From Risk Behavior to Perceived Farm Resilience: A Dutch Case Study. Ecology and Society 2020, 25, 1–36, doi:10.5751/ES-11893-250410.
51. Darnhofer, I. Resilience or How Do We Enable Agricultural Systems to Ride the Waves of Unexpected Change? Agric Syst 2021, 187, doi:10.1016/j.agsy.2020.102997.
2. Guo, H.; Wang, R.; Garfin, G.M.; Zhang, A.; Lin, D.; Liang, Q.; Wang, J. Rice Drought Risk Assessment under Climate Change: Based on Physical Vulnerability a Quantitative Assessment Method. Science of the Total Environment 2021, 751, doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141481.
3. Government of the Republic of Indonesia Indonesia Long-Term Strategy for Low Carbon and Climate Resilience 2050 (Indonesia LTS-LCCR 2050); 2021;
4. Saptutyningsih, E.; Diswandi, D.; Jaung, W. Does Social Capital Matter in Climate Change Adaptation? A Lesson from Agricultural Sector in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Land use policy 2020, 95, doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2019.104189.
5. World Bank INDONESIA CLIMATE RISK COUNTRY PROFILE; 2021;
6. IPCC Summary for Policymakers. In Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability; Cambridge University Press, 2023; pp. 3–34.
7. BPS-Statistics Indonesia Harvested Area and Rice Production in Indonesia 2024 [2025-02-05). 2024.
8. BPS-Statistics Indonesia Complete Enumeration Results Booklet for the 2023 Agricultural Census-Phase I; 2023;
9. Piters, S.; Termeer, E.; Bakker, D.; Fonteijn, H.; Brouwer, H. Food System Resilience - Towards a Joint Understanding and Implications for Policy. Wageningen Economic Research 2021.
10. Shah, K.U.; Dulal, H.B.; Johnson, C.; Baptiste, A. Understanding Livelihood Vulnerability to Climate Change: Applying the Livelihood Vulnerability Index in Trinidad and Tobago. Geoforum 2013, 47, 125–137, doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2013.04.004.
11. Puspitasari, D.; Mei Nurul Aini; Rina Satriani Penguatan Resiliensi Dan Strategi Penghidupan Masyarakat Rawan Bencana. Talenta Conference Series: Local Wisdom, Social, and Arts (LWSA) 2019, 2, 1–10, doi:10.32734/lwsa.v2i1.592.
12. Darnhofer, I. Farming Resilience: From Maintaining States towards Shaping Transformative Change Processes. Sustainability (Switzerland) 2021, 13, doi:10.3390/su13063387.
13. Amekudzi, A.; Khayesi, M.; Khisty, C.J. Sustainable Development Footprint: A Framework for Assessing Sustainable Development Risks and Opportunities in Time and Space. Int. J. Sustainable Development 2015, 18.
14. Meuwissen, M.P.M.; Feindt, P.H.; Spiegel, A.; Termeer, C.J.A.M.; Mathijs, E.; de Mey, Y.; Finger, R.; Balmann, A.; Wauters, E.; Urquhart, J.; et al. A Framework to Assess the Resilience of Farming Systems. Agric Syst 2019, 176, doi:10.1016/j.agsy.2019.102656.
15. BPS BPS 2023- Statistik-Indonesia-2023. Badan Pusat Statistis 2023.
16. BPS-Jawa Barat Badan Pusat Statistik Provinsi Jawa Barat; 2024;
17. XDI 2023 XDI Gross Domestic Climate Risk Report; Cross Dependency Initiative, 2023; ISBN 9780646890630.
18. Massagony, A.; Tam Ho, T.; Shimada, K. Climate Change Impact and Adaptation Policy Effectiveness on Rice Production in Indonesia. International Journal of Environmental Studies 2023, 80, 1373–1390, doi:10.1080/00207233.2022.2099110.
19. Mulya, S.P.; Hudalah, D. Agricultural Intensity for Sustainable Regional Development: A Case Study in Peri-Urban Areas of Karawang Regency, Indonesia. Regional Sustainability 2024, 5, doi:10.1016/j.regsus.2024.100117.
20. Ozkan, B.; Dube, A.K.; Reed, M.R. Role of Agricultural Extension in Building Climate Resilience of Food Security in Ethiopia. Springer 2022.
21. Obrist, B.; Pfeiffer, C.; Henley, R. Multi-Layered Social Resilience: A New Approach in Mitigation Research. Progress in Development Studies 2010, 10, 283–293, doi:10.1177/146499340901000402.
22. Knook, J.; Eastwood, C.; Beehre, L.; Mitchelmore, K.; Barker, A. Resilience Building in Agricultural Extension Programmes: Application of a Resilience Framework and Development of a Farmer-Focused Assessment Tool. Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension 2023, doi:10.1080/1389224X.2023.2264276.
23. Amanah, S.; Wala Kartika, N. Communication and Advisory Services to Develop Community Knowledge to Climate Change: Citarum River Basin Context.; European Alliance for Innovation n.o., May 31 2022.
24. Arifah; Salman, D.; Yassi, A.; Demmallino, E.B. Livelihood Vulnerability of Smallholder Farmers to Climate Change: A Comparative Analysis Based on Irrigation Access in South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Regional Sustainability 2022, 3, 244–253, doi:10.1016/j.regsus.2022.10.002.
25. Arfadly, A.R.; Zubair, H.; Mahyuddin; Soma, A.S. Socio-Economic Vulnerability Level in the Jeneberang Watershed in Gowa Regency, South Sulawesi Province, Indonesia. Regional Sustainability 2024, 5, doi:10.1016/j.regsus.2024.03.007.
26. Widiono, S.; Wahyuni, E.S.; Kolopaking, L.M.; Satria, A. Livelihood Vulnerability of Indigenous People to Climate Change around the Kerinci Seblat National Park in Bengkulu, Indonesia. Regional Sustainability 2024, 5, 100181, doi:10.1016/j.regsus.2024.100181.
27. Estiningtyas, W.; Mulyani, A.; Sumaryanto; Kartiwa, B. Assessing the Vulnerability of Food Farming System to Support Climate Change Adaptation: A Case Study in Java, Indonesia. In Proceedings of the IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science; IOP Publishing Ltd, February 22 2021; Vol. 648.
28. Munandar, A.I.; Lubis, M.Z.N. The Vulnerability of Rice Distribution in West Java Province, Indonesia: An Intelligent Analysis. In Proceedings of the IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science; IOP Publishing Ltd, April 13 2021; Vol. 724.
29. Solihah, L.P.; Ruminta, R.; Wicaksono, F.Y. Vulnerability and Risk Analysis of Climate Change Impacts on Rice Production (Oryza Sativa L.) in Majalengka Regency. Kultivasi 2024, 23, doi:10.24198/kultivasi.v23i2.46797.
30. Bappenas Climate Resilience Action Locations List. Kementrian Badan Perencanaan dan Pembangunan Nasional 2021.
31. Ani, S.W.; Darwanto, D.H.; Waluyati, L.R.; Masyhuri Regeneration of Rural Rice Farmers in Central Java Province. Environmental Challenges 2024, 16, doi:10.1016/j.envc.2024.100971.
32. Ministry of Agriculture of Indonesia Data on the Number of Farmers in Karawang and Subang Districts Is Accessed through the Agricultural Extension Management Information System. Ministry of Agriculture of Indonesia:https://simluh.pertanian.go.id/ 2023.
33. Yamane, T. Statistics: An Introductory Analysis, 2rd Edition. Harper and Row, New York 1967, 223–256.
34. Ariyarathna, S.M.W.P.K.; Nanayakkara, K.G.M.; Thushara, S.C. The Nexus of Farmers’ Sustainable Agriculture Potential and Readiness for More Organic Use in Rice Farming: Insights from Resilience Theory. Sustainable Environment 2023, 9, doi:10.1080/27658511.2023.2273619.
35. Hair, J.F., C.M., M.A.H., S.P., & P.M.J. Essentials of Business Research Methods. (3rd ed.). Sharpe. 2016.
36. Abid, M.; Schneider, U.A.; Scheffran, J. Adaptation to Climate Change and Its Impacts on Food Productivity and Crop Income: Perspectives of Farmers in Rural Pakistan. J Rural Stud 2016, 47, 254–266, doi:10.1016/j.jrurstud.2016.08.005.
37. Chimi, P.M.; Mala, W.A.; Fobane, J.L.; Essouma, F.M.; II, J.A.M.; Funwi, F.P.; Bell, J.M. Climate Change Perception and Local Adaptation of Natural Resource Management in a Farming Community of Cameroon: A Case Study. Environmental Challenges 2022, 8, doi:10.1016/j.envc.2022.100539.
38. Mobeen, M.; Kabir, K.H.; Schneider, U.A.; Ahmed, T.; Scheffran, J. Climate Change Perception, Adaptation, and Constraints in Irrigated Agriculture in Punjab and Sindh, Pakistan. Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Chang 2025, 30, doi:10.1007/s11027-025-10212-1.
39. Tran, P.T.; Vu, B.T.; Ngo, S.T.; Tran, V.D.; Ho, T.D.N. Climate Change and Livelihood Vulnerability of the Rice Farmers in the North Central Region of Vietnam: A Case Study in Nghe An Province, Vietnam. Environmental Challenges 2022, 7, doi:10.1016/j.envc.2022.100460.
40. Antwi-Agyei, P.; Stringer, L.C. Improving the Effectiveness of Agricultural Extension Services in Supporting Farmers to Adapt to Climate Change: Insights from Northeastern Ghana. Clim Risk Manag 2021, 32, doi:10.1016/j.crm.2021.100304.
41. Baffour-Ata, F.; Atta-Aidoo, J.; Said, R.O.; Nkrumah, V.; Atuyigi, S.; Analima, S.M. Building the Resilience of Smallholder Farmers to Climate Variability: Using Climate-Smart Agriculture in Bono East Region, Ghana. Heliyon 2023, 9, doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e21815.
42. Birner, R.; Davis, K.; Pender, J.; Nkonya, E.; Anandajayasekeram, P.; Ekboir, J.; Mbabu, A.; Spielman, D.J.; Horna, D.; Benin, S.; et al. From Best Practice to Best Fit: A Framework for Designing and Analyzing Pluralistic Agricultural Advisory Services Worldwide. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension 2009, 15, 341–355, doi:10.1080/13892240903309595.
43. Darma, R.; O’Connor, P.; Akzar, R.; Tenriawaru, A.N.; Amandaria, R. Enhancing Sustainability in Rice Farming: Institutional Responses to Floods and Droughts in Pump-Based Irrigation Systems in Wajo District, Indonesia. Sustainability (Switzerland) 2025, 17, doi:10.3390/su17083501.
44. Hua, H.H.; Brown, P.R. Social Capital Enhances the Resilience of Agricultural Cooperatives: Comparative Case Studies in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. World Development Sustainability 2024, 5, doi:10.1016/j.wds.2024.100170.
45. Tanti, P.C.; Jena, P.R. Perception on Climate Change, Access to Extension Service and Energy Sources Determining Adoption of Climate-Smart Practices: A Multivariate Approach. J Arid Environ 2023, 212, doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2023.104961.
46. Hendrawan, D.; Chrisendo, D.; Musshoff, O. Strengthening Oil Palm Smallholder Farmers’ Resilience to Future Industrial Challenges. Sci Rep 2024, 14, doi:10.1038/s41598-024-62426-z.
47. Guthrie, G. Farm Debt and the Over-Exploitation of Natural Capital Farm Debt and the Over-Exploitation of Natural Capital ⇤; 2023;
48. Awazi, N.P.; Quandt, A.; Kimengsi, J.N. Endogenous Livelihood Assets and Climate Change Resilience in the Mezam Highlands of Cameroon. GeoJournal 2023, 88, 2491–2508, doi:10.1007/s10708-022-10755-9.
49. Tong, Q.; Yuan, X.; Zhang, L.; Zhang, J.; Li, W. The Impact of Livelihood Capitals on Farmers’ Adoption of Climate-Smart Agriculture Practices: Evidence from Rice Production in the Jianghan Plain, China. Clim Risk Manag 2024, 43, doi:10.1016/j.crm.2023.100583.
50. Slijper, T.; de Mey, Y.; Poortvliet, P.M.; Meuwissen, M.P.M. From Risk Behavior to Perceived Farm Resilience: A Dutch Case Study. Ecology and Society 2020, 25, 1–36, doi:10.5751/ES-11893-250410.
51. Darnhofer, I. Resilience or How Do We Enable Agricultural Systems to Ride the Waves of Unexpected Change? Agric Syst 2021, 187, doi:10.1016/j.agsy.2020.102997.
Authors
Azhari, R. (2025) “The Influence of Agricultural Extension Services and Livelihood Capitals on Farmers’ Climate Resilience in West Java, Indonesia: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach”, Jurnal Pengelolaan Sumberdaya Alam dan Lingkungan (Journal of Natural Resources and Environmental Management), 15(5), p. 904. doi:10.29244/jpsl.15.5.904.
Copyright (c) 2025 Rafnel Azhari, Siti Amanah, Anna Fatchiya, Rilus A Kinseng
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How to Cite
Azhari, R. (2025) “The Influence of Agricultural Extension Services and Livelihood Capitals on Farmers’ Climate Resilience in West Java, Indonesia: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach”, Jurnal Pengelolaan Sumberdaya Alam dan Lingkungan (Journal of Natural Resources and Environmental Management), 15(5), p. 904. doi:10.29244/jpsl.15.5.904.
