Single Motherhood, Maternal Employment, and Basic Household Living Conditions in Indonesia: Evidence from the National Socio-Economic Survey (SUSENAS)
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.29244/jfs.v11i1.72361Keywords:
basic household living conditions, digital inclusion, maternal employment, single mothersAbstract
In many developing countries, changes in family structure, particularly the presence of single-mother households, have raised important questions regarding household welfare and inequality. This study examines how single motherhood, maternal employment, and their interactions are associated with basic household living conditions in Indonesia. Using cross-sectional microdata from the National Socio-Economic Survey, the analysis covers 71,320 women living in households with children under five years of age. Basic household living conditions were measured using an ordinal index based on food adequacy, improved sanitation, and access to safe drinking water. Ordered logit regression is employed as the main estimation strategy, complemented by predicted probabilities, robustness checks using binary logit, and heterogeneity analyses by maternal age cohort and education level. The findings show that single motherhood is negatively and significantly associated with the likelihood of achieving better basic household living conditions, whereas maternal employment and its interaction with single motherhood are not statistically significant. Education, internet access, and formal work were positively associated with better living conditions, whereas larger household size and rural residence were negatively associated with the outcome. Heterogeneity analysis indicates that the negative association of single motherhood is more pronounced among young and prime-age mothers, while it remains significant across both the low- and high-educated groups. These findings suggest that basic household living conditions are shaped not only by family structure but also by access to education, digital resources, decent work, and territorial context.
References
Ablaza, C., & Perales, F. (2025). Informality and welfare: new insights from the job satisfaction of workers in Indonesia. The Journal of Development Studies, 61(5), 689–707. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2024.2434251
Affandy, A. H. (2023). Single mothers: financial challenges and experiences in Brunei-Muara district. Southeast Asia: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 23(2), 83–94. https://doi.org/10.1108/SEAMJ-02-2023-0019
Ahmad, M., Sechi, C., & Vismara, L. (2024). Advanced maternal age: a scoping review about the psychological impact on mothers, infants, and their relationship. Behavioral Sciences, 14(3), 147. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14030147
Anakpo, G., & Kollamparambil, U. (2023). Family structure and household well-being: Evidence from South Africa. Development Southern Africa, 40(1), 57–75. https://doi.org/10.1080/0376835X.2021.1954883
Aronsson, A. (2023). The consequences of informal employment on workers’ health and family well-being in Europe. European Journal of Public Health, 33. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckad160.1334
Asaki, F. A., Oteng-Abayie, E. F., & Baajike, F. B. (2024). Effects of water, energy, and food security on household well-being. PLOS ONE, 19(7), e0307017. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0307017
[BPS] Badan Pusat Statistik. (2024). Survei Sosial Ekonomi Nasional 2024 Maret (KOR).
Chavda, K., & Nisarga, V. (2023). Single parenting: impact on child’s development. Journal of Indian Association for Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 19(1), 14–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/09731342231179017
Correa, T., Pavez, I., & Contreras, J. (2020). Digital inclusion through mobile phones?: A comparison between mobile-only and computer users in internet access, skills and use. Information, Communication & Society, 23(7), 1074–1091. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2018.1555270
Dharani, M. K., & Balamurugan, J. (2024). The financial hardships of single mothers: A review of two decades. Multidisciplinary Reviews, 7(8), 2024179. https://doi.org/10.31893/multirev.2024179
Eyasu, A. M. (2020). Determinants of poverty in rural households: Evidence from North-Western Ethiopia. Cogent Food & Agriculture, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2020.1823652
Ezeudu, T. S., & Obimbua, E. N. (2024). Enhancing rural market access and value chain integration for sustainable agricultural development in Nigeria: A Study of Constraints, Strategies, and Implications. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, VIII(III), 528–550. https://doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2024.803039
Godah, M. W., Beydoun, Z., Abdul-Khalek, R. A., Safieddine, B., Khamis, A. M., & Abdulrahim, S. (2021). Maternal education and low birth weight in low- and middle-income countries: systematic review and meta-analysis. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 25(8), 1305–1315. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-021-03133-3
Håkansta, C., Gunn, V., Kreshpaj, B., Matilla-Santander, N., Wegman, D. H., Hogstedt, C., Vignola, E. F., Muntaner, C., Bodin, T., O’Campo, P., & Lewchuk, W. (2025). What is the role of minimum wages in addressing precarious employment in the informal and formal sectors? findings from a systematic review. International Journal of Social Determinants of Health and Health Services, 55(2), 124–147. https://doi.org/10.1177/27551938241286463
Heintz-Martin, V. K., & Langmeyer, A. N. (2020). Economic situation, financial strain and child wellbeing in stepfamilies and single-parent families in Germany. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 41(2), 238–254. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-019-09653-z
Hmimou, A., Kaicer, M., & El Kettani, Y. (2024). The effects of human capital and social capital on well-being using SEM: evidence from the Moroccan case. Quality & Quantity, 58(4), 3107–3131. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-023-01794-6
Jain, M., & Mahmoodi, V. (2022). Being one in a world of twos: experiences and consequences of single parenting. Graduate Student Journal of Psychology, 18. https://doi.org/10.52214/gsjp.v18i.10930
Jensen, T. M., & Sanner, C. (2021). A scoping review of research on well‐being across diverse family structures: Rethinking approaches for understanding contemporary families. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 13(4), 463–495. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12437
Jones, C., Zadeh, S., Jadva, V., & Golombok, S. (2022). Solo fathers and mothers: an exploration of well-being, social support and social approval. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(15), 9236. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19159236
Kim, S. M., Wu, C. F., & Woodard, R. (2020). The dreams of mothers: implications of sen’s capability approach for single mothers on welfare. Journal of Poverty, 24(4), 267–283. https://doi.org/10.1080/10875549.2019.1692272
Klasen, S., Le, T. T. N., Pieters, J., & Santos Silva, M. (2021). What drives female labour force participation? comparable micro-level evidence from eight developing and emerging economies. The Journal of Development Studies, 57(3), 417–442. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2020.1790533
Kosec, K., & Wantchekon, L. (2020). Can information improve rural governance and service delivery? World Development, 125, 104376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.07.017
Kühn, M., Dudel, C., & Werding, M. (2023). Maternal health, well-being, and employment transitions: A longitudinal comparison of partnered and single mothers in Germany. Social Science Research, 114, 102906. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2023.102906
Long, J. S., & Freese, J. (2014). Regression Models for Categorical Dependent Variables Using Stata (3rd ed.). Stata Press.
Maldonado, L. C., & Nieuwenhuis, R. (2019). Single Parents in Context. In Sociology. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/obo/9780199756384-0220
Marshall, A., Wilson, C.-A., & Dale, A. (2023). New pathways to crisis resilience: solutions for improved digital connectivity and capability in rural Australia. Media International Australia, 189(1), 24–42. https://doi.org/10.1177/1329878X231183292
Marshan, J., & Pritadrajati, D. (2025). Maternal education and childrenʼs well‐being: evidence from four pacific countries. Asia & the Pacific Policy Studies, 12(3). https://doi.org/10.1002/app5.70044
Mikkelsen, C., Ares, S., Gordziejczuk, M., Picone, N., & Bruno, M. (2022). The Well-Being of Rural Population. In: Celemin, J.P., Velázquez, G.A. (eds) Maps of Quality of Life in Argentina Since the 19th Century. The Latin American Studies Book Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15262-7_14
Ntoimo, L. F. C., & Mutanda, N. (2020). Demography of single parenthood in africa: patterns, determinants and consequences. Family Demography and Post-2015 Development Agenda in Africa (pp. 147–169). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14887-4_8
Nussbaum, M. C. (2008). Creating capabilities: the human development approach and its implementation. Hypatia, 24(3), 211–215. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1527-2001.2009.01053.x
Patrinos, H. A., & Psacharopoulos, G. (2020). Returns to education in developing countries. The Economics of Education, 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815391-8.00004-5
Rhue, S. J., Torrico, G., Amuzie, C., Collins, S. M., Lemaitre, A., Workman, C. L., Rosinger, A. Y., Pearson, A. L., Piperata, B. A., Wutich, A., Brewis, A., & Stoler, J. (2023). The effects of household water insecurity on child health and well‐being. WIREs Water, 10(6), e1666. https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1666
Santoso, D. B., Gan, C., Revindo, M. D., & Massie, N. W. G. (2020). The impact of microfinance on Indonesian rural households’ welfare. Agricultural Finance Review, 80(4), 491–506. https://doi.org/10.1108/AFR-11-2018-0098
Sen, A. (1999). Development as Freedom. Oxford University Press.
Strickland, J. R. (2024). The relationship of food insecurity and mental health in single-parent households: a literature review. Undergraduate Research in Natural and Clinical Science and Technology Journal, 8, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.26685/urncst.554
Sultana, N., Rahman, M. M., & Khanam, R. (2022). The effect of the informal sector on sustainable development: Evidence from developing countries. Business Strategy & Development, 5(4), 437–451. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsd2.217
Susilowati, H. P. D., & Nurhayati, S. R. (2025). A phenomenological study on the dynamics of work-family balance in dual-career mothers toward family well-being. Journal of Family Sciences, 251–265. https://doi.org/10.29244/jfs.v10i2.63902
Syukur, Y., Putra, A. H., Ardi, Z., Nuzila Zahri, T., & Eva Putri, J. (2024). Global perspectives on digital parenting: Challenges and opportunities in improving family well-being. E3S Web of Conferences, 568, 04014. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202456804014
Vassilakopoulou, P., & Hustad, E. (2023). Bridging digital divides: a literature review and research agenda for information systems research. Information Systems Frontiers, 25(3), 955–969. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10796-020-10096-3
Wang, H., Leng, H., Huang, W., & Han, J. (2025). Digital capability and rural household development resilience: A double machine learning approach. Journal of Rural Studies, 120, 103900. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2025.103900
Williams, R. (2016). Understanding and interpreting generalized ordered logit models. The Journal of Mathematical Sociology, 40(1), 7–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/0022250X.2015.1112384
Wu, C. F., Kang, J., Yoon, S., & Anderson, S. (2025). When one is not enough: exploring the intersection of multiple public benefits and multiple material hardships in low-income single-mother families. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 46(2), 598–612. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-024-09978-4
Wu, H. (2022). The effect of maternal education on child mortality in Bangladesh. Population and Development Review, 48(2), 475–503. https://doi.org/10.1111/padr.12467
Wulan, N., Ridwan, A., Fauzi, A. M., & Ambarwati, M. D. (2025). Gender representation in the division of domestic and public roles in modern families in Surabaya. Journal of Family Sciences, 266–281. https://doi.org/10.29244/jfs.v10i2.65589
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Journal of Family Sciences
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. - Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
_001.png)
