Potential Habitats of Siamese Crocodiles and False Gharials in East Kalimantan for Conflict Resolution
Abstract
Concerns in crocodiles sustainability have long been overlooked, due to humans fear of its ferocity and unresolved human-crocodile conflicts. The siamese crocodile (Crocodylus siamensis) and false gharial (Tomistoma schlegelii) are considered threatened by the IUCN red list because of their limited range and declining populations. In this study we developed habitat suitability model for both species and overlaid with anthropogenic factors to mitigate conflict between crocodiles and human in Mesangat-Suwi Wetland, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. We collected species presence from 2018–2023, measured environmental variables, interviewed 100 respondents, and mapped all information with Maximum Enthropy program (MaxEnt). Results showed that different factors influenced the habitat distribution for each species. Specifically, distance from swamps was affected the most for both crocodiles. Our model found that the potential habitat was much smaller than the non-potential ones due to humans’ intrusion. Much of the Mesangat-Suwi area was covered in high-conflict zones between humans and crocodiles, endangering both species even more. Hence, serious actions were urgently needed to resolve the conflict, either by prevention and mitigation actions, to ensure human-crocodile coexistence in East Kalimantan.
References
Nifong, J.C.; Silliman, B.R. Impacts of a Large-Bodied, Apex Predator (Alligator Mississippiensis Daudin 1801) on Salt Marsh Food Webs. J. Exp. Mar. Bio. Ecol. 2013, 440, 185–191, doi:10.1016/j.jembe.2013.01.002.
Somaweera, R.; Nifong, J.; Rosenblatt, A.; Brien, M.L.; Combrink, X.; Elsey, R.M.; Grigg, G.; Magnusson, W.E.; Mazzotti, F.J.; Pearcy, A.; et al. The Ecological Importance of Crocodylians: Towards Evidence-Based Justification for Their Conservation. Biol. Rev. 2020, 95, 936–959, doi:10.1111/brv.12594.
Bezuijen, M.R.; Simpson, B.; Behler, N.; Daltry, J.; Tempsiripong, Y. Crocodylus Siamensis. IUCN Red List Threat. Species 2012, 8235, 19.
Shaney, K.; Shwedick, B.; Simpson, B..; Pine, A.; Sideleau, B.; Stevenson, C. Tomistoma Schlegelii (False Gharial). IUCN Red List Threat. Species 2023 2023, 43, 608–609, doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2023-1.RLTS.T21981A214287051.en.
CITES Appendices I, II and III Valid from 25 November 2023. Conv. Int. Trade Endanger. Species Wild Fauna Flora 2023, 3–80.
Thompson, R.M.; Brose, U.; Dunne, J.A.; Hall, R.O.; Hladyz, S.; Kitching, R.L.; Martinez, N.D.; Rantala, H.; Romanuk, T.N.; Stouffer, D.B.; et al. Food Webs: Reconciling the Structure and Function of Biodiversity. Trends Ecol. Evol. 2012, 27, 689–697, doi:10.1016/j.tree.2012.08.005.
Magioli, M.; Moreira, M.Z.; Fonseca, R.C.B.; Ribeiro, M.C.; Rodrigues, M.G.; De Barros Ferraz, K.M.P.M. Human-Modified Landscapes Alter Mammal Resource and Habitat Use and Trophic Structure. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2019, 116, 18466–18472, doi:10.1073/pnas.1904384116.
González-Desales, G.A.; Sigler, L.; García-Grajales, J.; Charruau, P.; Zarco-González, M.M.; Balbuena-Serrano, Á.; Monroy-Vilchis, O. Factors Influencing the Occurrence of Negative Interactions between People and Crocodilians in Mexico. Oryx 2021, 55, 791–799, doi:10.1017/S0030605319000668.
Torres, D.F.; Oliveira, E.S.; Alves, R.R.N. Conflicts Between Humans and Terrestrial Vertebrates: A Global Review. Trop. Conserv. Sci. 2018, 11, doi:10.1177/1940082918794084.
Webb, G.J.W.; Manolis, S.C.; Brien, M.L. Saltwater Crocodile Crocodylus Porosus. Crocodiles. 2010, 3, 99–113.
Caldicott, D..; Croser, D.; Manolis, C.; Webb, G.; Britto Crocodile Attack in Australia: An Analysis of Its Incidence and Review of the Pathology and Management of Crocodilian Attacks in General. Wilderness Environ. Med. 2005, 16, 172–173, doi:10.1580/1080-6032(2005)16[172:AMSVCF]2.0.CO;2.
Britton, A.; Campbell, A. Croc Attacks: A New Website with Bite. Ecos 2014, doi:10.1071/ec14001.
Bruskotter, J.T.; Wilson, R.S. Determining Where the Wild Things Will Be: Using Psychological Theory to Find Tolerance for Large Carnivores. Conserv. Lett. 2014, 7, 158–165, doi:10.1111/conl.12072.
Kansky, R.; Kidd, M.; Knight, A.T. A Wildlife Tolerance Model and Case Study for Understanding Human Wildlife Conflicts. Biol. Conserv. 2016, 201, 137–145, doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2016.07.002.
KLHK Peraturan Direktur Jenderal Dan Planologi Kehutanan Nomor: P.1/VII-IPSDH/2015 Tentang Pedoman Pemantauan Penutupan Lahan. Kementeri. Lingkung. Hidup dan Kehutan. Direktorat Jenderal Planol. Kehutan. 2015, 1–17.
Hardani; H, A.; J, U.; EF, U.; RR, I.; RA, F.; DJ, S.; NH, A. Metode Penelitian Kualitatif & Kuantitatif; H, A., Ed.; 2020; ISBN 9786237066330.
Rahman, D.A.; Gonzalez, G.; Haryono, M.; Muhtarom, A.; Firdaus, A.Y.; Aulagnier, S. Factors Affecting Seasonal Habitat Use, and Predicted Range of Two Tropical Deer in Indonesian Rainforest. Acta Oecologica 2017, 82, 41–51, doi:10.1016/j.actao.2017.05.008.
Pearson, R.G.; Raxworthy, C.J.; Nakamura, M.; Townsend Peterson, A. Predicting Species Distributions from Small Numbers of Occurrence Records: A Test Case Using Cryptic Geckos in Madagascar. J. Biogeogr. 2007, 34, 102–117, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2006.01594.x.
Sunaryo, S.; Setiawan; Siagian, T.H. Mengatasi Masalah Multikolinearitas Dan Outlier Dengan Pendekatan Robpca (Studi Kasus Analisis Regresi Angka Kematian Bayi Di Jawa Timur). Mat. Sains, dan Teknol. 2015, 2015;12(1), 1–10.
Çoban, H.O.; Örücü, Ö.K.; Arslan, E.S. Maxent Modeling for Predicting the Current and Future Potential Geographical Distribution of Quercus Libani Olivier. Sustain. 2020, 12, 1–17, doi:10.3390/su12072671.
Yan, H.; Feng, L.; Zhao, Y.; Feng, L.; Wu, D.; Zhu, C. Prediction of the Spatial Distribution of Alternanthera Philoxeroides in China Based on ArcGIS and MaxEnt. Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 2020, 21, 1–15, doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00856.
Sukmono, A.; Subiyanto, S. Penggunaan Partial Least Square Regression (Plsr) Untuk Mengatasi Multikolinearitas Dalam Estimasi Klorofil Daun Tanaman Padi Dengan Citra Hiperspektral. Geoid 2014, 10, 93, doi:10.12962/j24423998.v10i1.702.
Condro, AA; Prasetyo, LB; Rushayati, SB. Short-term projection of Bornean orangutan spatial distribution based on climate and land covechange scenario. Proc.SPIE. 2019. Vol 11372. hlm 113721. doi:10.1117/12.2541633.
Rusman, D. PREDIKSI KEHADIRAN BADAK SUMATERA (Dicerorhinus Sumatrensis) DAN ANALISIS STRUKTUR LANSKAP HABITATNYA DI TAMAN NASIONAL BUKIT BARISAN SELATAN, Universitas Gadjah Mada, 2016.
Phillips, S.J.; Anderson, R.P.; Schapire, R.E. Maximum Entropy Modeling of Species Geographic Distribution. Ecol. Modell. 2006, 190, 231–259, doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2005.03.026.
Staniewicz, A.; Behler, N.; Dharmasyah, S.; Jones, G. Niche Partitioning between Juvenile Sympatric Crocodilians in Mesangat. Raffles Bull. Zool. 2018, 7600, 528–537.
Bezuijen, M.R.; Cox, J.H.; Thorbjarnarson, J.B.; Phothitay, C.; Hedemark, M.; Rasphone, A. Status of Siamese Crocodile (Crocodylus Siamensis) Schneider, 1801 (Reptilia: Crocodylia) in Laos. J. Herpetol. 2013, 47, 41–65, doi:10.1670/11-157.
Behler, N.; Kopsieker, L.; Staniewicz, A.; Darmansyah, S.; Stuebing, R.; Ziegler, T. Population Size, Demography and Diet of the Siamese Crocodile, Crocodylus Siamensis (Schneider, 1801) in the Mesangat Swamp in Kalimantan, Indonesia. Raffles Bull. Zool. 2018, 66, 506–516.
Sudrajat, H.A.S. The Potential of Mesangat Lake , East Kutai , Indonesia as an Essential Ecological Area for Habitat Conservation of Critically Endangered Crocodylus Siamensis. Biodiversitas 2019, 20, 3126–3133, doi:10.13057/biodiv/d201104.
Lariman; Desyana, M.; Trimurti, S. Study of False Gharial (Tomistoma Schlegelii) Habitat Characteristics in Mesangat Wetlands, East Kutai, East Kalimantan. Int. J. Sci. Res. 2020, 10, 649–653, doi:10.21275/SR211208061717.
Saputro, M.; Rifanjani, S.; Siahaan, S. Studi Habitat Buaya Senyulong (Tomistoma Schlegelii) Di Sungai Sekonyer Taman Nasional Tanjung Puting Kalimantan Tengah. J. Hutan Lestari 2020, 8, 145–155.
Hernández, I.S.; Marín, M.S.; Monrós González, J.S.; Bolaños Montero, J.R.; Ramírez, J.S. Potential Habitat of the American Crocodile (Crocodylus Acutus: Reptilia: Crocodilidae) and Identification of Areas of Interaction with Humans in Costa Rica. South Am. J. Herpetol. 2022, 25, 66–75, doi:10.2994/SAJH-D-21-00037.1.
Sam, H.; Hor, L.; Nhek, R.; Sorn, P.; Heng, S.; Simpson, B.; Starr, A.; Brook, S.; Frechette, J.L.; Daltry, J.C. Status, Distribution and Ecology of the Siamese Crocodile Crocodylus Siamensis in Cambodia. Cambodian J. Nat. Hist. 2015, 153–164.
Ratanakorn, P.; Chamsai, T.; Sedwisai, P.; Sujittosakul, T.; Lapjatuporn, T.; Wongluechai, P.; Tiyanun, E.; Kunsorn, A.; Puangdee, S.; Chooma, T.; et al. Population Assessment of Crocodiles in Bueng Boraphet, Thailand. J. Appl. Anim. Sci. 2021, 14, 21–32.
Bezuijen, M.R.; Webb, G.J.W.; Hartoyo, P.; Samedi Peat Swamp Forest and the False Gharial Tomistoma Schlegelii (Crocodilia, Reptilia) in the Merang River, Eastern Sumatra, Indonesia. Oryx 2001, 35, 301–307, doi:10.1046/j.1365-3008.2001.00195.x.
Stuebing, R.B.; Bezuijen, M.R.; Auliya, M.; Voris, H.K. The Current and Historic Distribution of Tomistoma Schlegelii (The False Gharial ) (Müller , 1838) (Crocodylia , Reptilia ). RAFFLES Bull. Zool. 2006, 54, 181–197.
Setiawan, A.; Safri, A.; Prima, B.; Kadarisman, R.; Indrianti, W.; Oktaberi, R. RECENT OBSERVATION OF FALSE GHARIAL (Tomistoma Schlegelii) IN THE SEMBILANG NATONAL PARK (TNS) AREA, BANYUASIN REGENCY, SOUTH SUMATERA PROVINCE. BIOVALENTIA Biol. Res. J. 2019, 5, 8–13, doi:10.24233/biov.5.1.2019.133.
Shaney, K.J.; Hamidy, A.; Walsh, M.; Arida, E.; Arimbi, A.; Smith, E.N. Impacts of Anthropogenic Pressures on the Contemporary Biogeography of Threatened Crocodilians in Indonesia. Oryx 2019, 53, 570–581, doi:10.1017/S0030605317000977.
Kurniati, H.; Widodo, T. Surveys of Siamese Crocodile (Crocodylus Siamensis) Habitat in the Mahakam River, East Kalimantan. Zoo Indones. 2005, 16, 51–62.
Stuebing, R.B.; Bezuijen, M.R.; Auliya, M.; Voris, H.K. The Current and Historic Distribution of Tomistoma Schlegelii (the False Gharial) (Müller, 1838) (Crocodylia, Reptilia). Raffles Bull. Zool. 2006, 54, 181–197.
Wicke, B.; Sikkema, R.; Dornburg, V.; Faaij, A. Exploring Land Use Changes and the Role of Palm Oil Production in Indonesia and Malaysia. Land use policy 2011, 28, 193–206, doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2010.06.001.
Stuebing, R.; Anuar, S.; Sah, M.; Lading, E.; Jong, J. The Status of Tomistoma Schlegelii ( Mueller ) in Malaysia. Group 2004, 136–140.
Stuebing, R.; Sommerlad, R.; Staniewicz, A. Conservation of the Sunda Gharial Tomistoma Schlegelii in Lake Mesangat, Indonesia. Int. Zoo Yearb. 2015, 49, 137–149, doi:10.1111/izy.12068.
Morrison, J.C.; Sechrest, W.; Dinerstein, E.; Wilcove, D.S.; Lamoreux, J.F. Persistence of Large Mammal Faunas as Indicators of Global Human Impacts. J. Mammal. 2007, 88, 1363–1380, doi:10.1644/06-MAMM-A-124R2.1.
Karanth, K.K.; Naughton-Treves, L.; Defries, R.; Gopalaswamy, A.M. Living with Wildlife and Mitigating Conflicts around Three Indian Protected Areas. Environ. Manage. 2013, 52, 1320–1332, doi:10.1007/s00267-013-0162-1.
Sawyer, H.; Kauffman, M.J.; Middleton, A.D.; Morrison, T.A.; Nielson, R.M.; Wyckoff, T.B. A Framework for Understanding Semi-Permeable Barrier Effects on Migratory Ungulates. J. Appl. Ecol. 2013, 50, 68–78, doi:10.1111/1365-2664.12013.
Martinuzzi, S.; Withey, J.C.; Pidgeon, A.M.; Plantinga, A.J.; McKerrow, A.J.; Williams, S.G.; Helmers, D.P.; Radeloff, V.C. Future Land-Use Scenarios and the Loss of Wildlife Habitats in the Southeastern United States. Ecol. Appl. 2015, 25, 160–171, doi:10.1890/13-2078.1.
Numata, I.; Silva, S.S.; Cochrane, M.A.; d’Oliveira, M. V. Fire and Edge Effects in a Fragmented Tropical Forest Landscape in the Southwestern Amazon. For. Ecol. Manage. 2017, 401, 135–146, doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2017.07.010.
Nde, S.C.; Bett, S.K.; Mathuthu, M.; Palamuleni, L. Anthropogenic Land Use and Land Cover Change as Potential Drivers of Sediment Sources in the Upper Crocodile River, North West Province, South Africa. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, doi:10.3390/ijerph192013313.
Saragih, G.S.; Kayat; Hidayatullah, M.; Hadi, D.S. A Preliminary Study on the Population and Habitat of Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus Porosus) in Timor Island, East Nusa Tenggara. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 2020, 591, doi:10.1088/1755-1315/591/1/012044.
Amarasinghe, A.A.T.; Madawala, M.B.; Karunarathna, D.M.S.S.; Manolis, S.C.; de Silva, A.; Sommerlad, R. Human-Crocodile Conflict and Conservation Implications of Saltwater Crocodiles Crocodylus Porosus (Reptilia: Crocodylia: Crocodylidae) in Sri Lanka. J. Threat. Taxa 2015, 7, 7111–7130, doi:10.11609/jott.o4159.7111-30.
Platt, S.G.; Monyrath, V.; Sovannara, H.; Kheng, L.; Rainwater, T.R. Nesting Phenology and Clutch Characteristics of Captive Siamese Crocodiles (Crocodylus Siamensis) in Cambodia. Zoo Biol. 2012, 31, 534–545, doi:10.1002/zoo.20418.
Suryanto; Sumanbowo, H.; Tresina; Noor, A.; Muslim, T.; Suimah; Kusneti, M.; Isa, N. Rencana Aksi Perlindungan Dan Konservasi Kawasan Ekosistem Esensial Lahan Basah Mesangat-Suwi (2019-2023); 2019; ISBN 9786239024802.
Knowlton, A.R.; Clark, J.S.; Hamilton, P.K.; Kraus, S.D.; Pettis, H.M.; Rolland, R.M.; Schick, R.S. Fishing Gear Entanglement Threatens Recovery of Critically Endangered North Atlantic Right Whales. Conserv. Sci. Pract. 2022, 4, 1–14, doi:10.1111/csp2.12736.
Hassan, R.; Ahmad, R.; Md Adzhar, M.A.A.; Gani, M.I.Z.A.; Ayob, A.; Zainudin, R. Notes on the Wild Tomistoma Populations in Western Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo. Int. J. Ecol. 2016, 2016, doi:10.1155/2016/4357623.
Sideleau, B.; Staniewicz, A.; Syah, M.; Shaney, K.J. An Analysis of Tomistoma (Tomistoma Schlegelii) Attacks on Humans. Mar. Freshw. Res. 2022, 73, 1331–1338, doi:10.1071/MF22015.
Cox, J.J.H.; Phothitay, C. Survey of the Siamese Crocodile Crocodylus Simensis in Savannkakhet Province , Lao PDR, 6 May - 4 June 2008; OZ Minerals Ltd. & Wildlife Conservation Society, 2008;
Bolaños, J.R. Manejo de Cocodrilos (Crocodylus Acutus) En Estanques de Cultivo de Tilapia En Cañas, Guanacaste. Rev. Ciencias Ambient. 2012, 43, 63, doi:10.15359/rca.43-1.6.
Valdelomar, V.; Ramírez-Vargas, M.A.; Quesada-Acuña, S.G.; Arrieta, C.; Carranza, I.; Ruiz-Morales, G.; Espinoza-Bolaños, S.; Mena-Villalobos, J.M.; Brizuela, C.; Miranda- Fonseca, L.; et al. Percepción y Conocimiento Popular Sobre El Cocodrilo Crocodylus Acutus (Reptilia:Crocodylidae) En Zonas Aledañas Al Río Tempisque, Guanacaste, Costa Rica. UNED Res. J. 2012, 4, 191–202, doi:10.22458/urj.v4i2.8.
Sandoval-Hernández, I.; Duran-Apuy, A.; Quirós-Valerio, J. Activities That May Influence the Risk of Crocodile (Crocodylus Acutus: Reptilia: Crocodilidae) Attack to Humans in the Tempisque River Area, Guanacaste, Costa Rica. Uniciencia 2017, 31, 13, doi:10.15359/ru.31-1.2.
Sandoval Murillo, L.F.; Morera Beita, C.; Sandoval Hernández, I. Zonificación de Las Áreas Propensas a Incidentes Por Ataques de Crocodylus Acutus En El Pacífico Central de Costa Rica Utilizando Un Sistema de Información Geográfico. Rev. Cart. 2019, 259–279, doi:10.35424/rcar.v5i98.150.
Manurung, R.; Kusrini, M.D.; Prasetyo, L.B. Mapping the Distribution of Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus Porosus) and Risks of Human-Crocodile Conflicts in Settlements Around Kutai National Parl, East Kalimantan. Media Konserv. 2021, 26, 52–62, doi:10.29244/medkon.26.1.52-62.
Mascarenhas, P.B.; Maffei, F.; Muniz, F.; Freitas-Filho, R.F.; Portelinha, T.C.G.; Campos, Z.; Bassetti, L.A.B. Conflicts between Humans and Crocodilians in Urban Areas across Brazil: A New Approach to Support Management and Conservation. Ethnobiol. Conserv. 2022, 10, doi:10.15451/ec2021-12-10.37-1-19.
Ardiantiono; Henkanaththegedara, S.M.; Sideleau, B.; Anwar, Y.; Haidir, I.A.; Amarasinghe, A.A.T. Integrating Social and Ecological Information to Identify High-Risk Areas of Human-Crocodile Conflict in the Indonesian Archipelago. Biol. Conserv. 2023, 280, 109965, doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2023.109965.
Syafutra, R.; Apriyani, R.; Heri; Karsina, L.; Wulan, N.A.N. Mitigasi Konflik Manusia-Buaya Muara Di Desa Kayu Besi Dan Bukit Layang, Kabupaten Bangka. J. Pengabdi. Kpd. Masy. Nusant. 2023, 4, 565–572.
Morpurgo, B.; Gvaryahu, G.; Robinzon, B. Aggressive Behaviour in Immature Captive Nile Crocodiles, Crocodylus Niloticus, in Relation to Feeding. Physiol. Behav. 1993, 53, 1157–1161, doi:10.1016/0031-9384(93)90373-N.
Rahmat, U.M.; Santosa, Y.; Prasetyo, L.B.; Kartono, A.P. Pemodelan Kesesuaian Habitat Badak Jawa (Rhinoceros Sondaicus Desmarest 1822) Di Taman Nasional Ujung Kulon, 2012, Vol. 18.
Gálvez, N.; Guillera-Arroita, G.; St. John, F.A.V.; Schüttler, E.; Macdonald, D.W.; Davies, Z.G. A Spatially Integrated Framework for Assessing Socioecological Drivers of Carnivore Decline. J. Appl. Ecol. 2018, 55, 1393–1405, doi:10.1111/1365-2664.13072.
Struebig, M.J.; Linkie, M.; Deere, N.J.; Martyr, D.J.; Millyanawati, B.; Faulkner, S.C.; Le Comber, S.C.; Mangunjaya, F.M.; Leader-Williams, N.; McKay, J.E.; et al. Addressing Human-Tiger Conflict Using Socio-Ecological Information on Tolerance and Risk. Nat. Commun. 2018, 9, doi:10.1038/s41467-018-05983-y.
Fukuda, Y.; Manolis, C.; Appel, K. Featured Article: Management of Human-Crocodile Conflict in the Northern Territory, Australia: Review of Crocodile Attacks and Removal of Problem Crocodiles. J. Wildl. Manage. 2014, 78, 1239–1249, doi:10.1002/jwmg.767.
Leaper, R.; Calderan, S. Published by the Secretariat of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals; 2018; ISBN 9783937429267.
Cherkiss, M.S.; Mazzotti, F.J.; Hord, L.; Aldecoa, M. Remarkable Movements of an American Crocodile (Crocodylus Acutus) in Florida. Southeast. Nat. 2014, 13, N52–N56, doi:10.1656/058.013.0407.
Brunell, A.M.; Deem, V.; Bankovich, B.; Bled, F.; Mazzotti, F.J. Effects of Translocation on American Crocodile Movements and Habitat Use in South Florida. J. Wildl. Manage. 2023, 87, 1–20, doi:10.1002/jwmg.22427.
Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Media Konservasi is an open access journal, meaning that all content is freely available without charge to the user or their institution. Users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles in this journal without needing to request prior permission from the publisher or the author.
All articles published by Media Konservasi are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. This allows for unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided proper credit is given to the original authors.
Authors submitting manuscripts should understand and agree that the copyright of published manuscripts is retained by the authors. Copyright encompasses the exclusive rights of authors to reproduce, distribute, and sell any part of the journal articles in all forms and media. Reproduction of any part of this journal, its storage in databases, and its transmission by any form or media is allowed without written permission from Media Konservasi.
