Do Sustainability Standards Provide Environmental, Social and Economic Benefits for Independent Oil Palm Smallholders?
Abstract
There is much inconclusive and unclear literature on understanding the benefits of environmental, social, and economic for the sustainability standards compliance of smallholders. The study aims to build a simultaneous relationship of the sustainable standard in the context of Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil toward the benefit of sustainable dimensions using the concept of sustainable development, incentive theory, and the concept of agricultural extension of 150 independent smallholders. The results prove that farmers' organization is the most significant, followed by management of environmental monitoring and sustainable business development. However, legal is insignificant because of thought of as a nice to have. There is limited involvement in practical communities’ instruments so agricultural extension becomes an effort to reconstruct thoughts and actions to promote sustainability, especially social sustainability. Most indicators of sustainable standards toward the benefit of sustainable dimensions indicators are poor, except for fire prevention and control which had a moderately positive effect on the conservation of biodiversity. Thus, an integrated approach to area-based risks management, local institutions with religious and traditional leaders, Community-Based-Fire-Management, conservation area buffer zone, public-private partnerships, enabling conditions to access finance, and resource distribution with budgets and geographic proximity can be an effort to encourage compliance with sustainable standards.
Downloads
References
Addison, P. F. E., Stephenson, P. J., Bull, J. W., Carbone, G., Burgman, M., Burgass, M. J., Gerber, L. R., Howard, P., McCormick, N., McRae, L., Reuter, K. E., Starkey, M., & Milner-Gulland, E. J. (2020). Bringing sustainability to life: A framework to guide biodiversity indicator development for business performance management. Business Strategy and the Environment, 29(8), 3303–3313. https://doi.org/10.1002/bse.2573
Adnan, K. M. M., Ying, L., Ayoub, Z., Sarker, S. A., Menhas, R., Chen, F., & Yu, M. M. (2020). Risk management strategies to cope catastrophic risks in agriculture: The case of contract farming, diversification and precautionary savings. Agriculture (Switzerland), 10(8), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10080351
Afrizal, & Berenschot, W. (2020). Resolving Land Conflicts in Indonesia. Bijdragen Tot de Taal-, Land- En Volkenkunde / Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia, 176(4), 561–574. https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-17604002
Akram, N., Akram, M. W., Wang, H., & Mehmood, A. (2019). Does land tenure systems affect sustainable agricultural development? Sustainability (Switzerland), 11(14), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11143925
AMAF. (2017). Asean Public-Private Partnership Regional Framework for Technology Development in the Food , Agriculture and Forestry ( Faf ) Sectors (Issue September).
Ames, H., Glenton, C., & Lewin, S. (2019). Purposive sampling in a qualitative evidence synthesis: A worked example from a synthesis on parental perceptions of vaccination communication. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 19(26). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-019-0665-4
Andreoni, V., & Miola, A. (2016). Competitiveness and Sustainable Development Goals (Issue January). https://doi.org/10.2788/64453
Anselme, P., & Robinson, M. J. F. (2019). Incentive motivation: The missing piece between learning and behavior. In K. A. Renninger & S. E. Hidi (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Motivation and Learning (Issue September, pp. 163–182). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316823279
Apriani, E., Kim, Y.-S., Fisher, L. A., & Baral, H. (2020). Non-state certification of smallholders for sustainable palm oil in Sumatra, Indonesia. Land Use Policy, 99, 105112. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.105112
Arsalidou, D. (2016). Rethinking Corporate Governance in Financial Institutions (1st ed.). Routledge.
Bakhtary, H., Haupt, F., Luttrell, C., Landholm, D., & Jelsma, I. (2021). Promoting sustainable oil palm production by independent smallholders in Indonesia: Perspectives from non-state actors (Issue February).
Bennett, A., Ravikumar, A., McDermott, C., & Malhi, Y. (2019). Smallholder Oil Palm Production in the Peruvian Amazon: Rethinking the Promise of Associations and Partnerships for Economically Sustainable Livelihoods. Frontiers in Forests and Global Change, 2(April), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2019.00014
Berry, P. M., Fabók, V., Blicharska, M., Bredin, Y. K., Llorente, M. G., Kovács, E., Geamana, N., Stanciu, A., Termansen, M., Jääskeläinen, T., Haslett, J. R., & Harrison, P. A. (2018). Why conserve biodiversity? A multi-national exploration of stakeholders’ views on the arguments for biodiversity conservation. Biodiversity and Conservation, 27(7), 1741–1762. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-016-1173-z
Bingen, R. J., & Simpson, B. M. (2015). Farmer Organizations and Modernizing Extension and Advisory Services : A Framework and Reflection on Cases from Sub-Saharan Africa E XTENSION AND A DVISORY S ERVICES : (Issue March). https://meas.illinois.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Bingen-Simpson-2014-Farmer-Organizations-MEAS-Discussion-Paper.pdf
Bizikova, L., Nkonya, E., Minah, M., Hanisch, M., Turaga, R. M. R., Speranza, C. I., Karthikeyan, M., Tang, L., Ghezzi-Kopel, K., Kelly, J., Celestin, A. C., & Timmers, B. (2020). A scoping review of the contributions of farmers’ organizations to smallholder agriculture. Nature Food, 1(10), 620–630. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-020-00164-x
Brandi, C. (2020). The Changing Landscape of Sustainability Standards in Indonesia: Potentials and Pitfalls of Making Global Value Chains More Sustainable. In Negi, Archna, Pérez-Pineda, J. Antonio, Blankenbach, & Johannes (Eds.), Sustainability Standards and Global Governance: Experiences of Emerging Economies (First, pp. 133–144). Springer Publishing.
Brown, P., Daigneault, A., & Dawsonc, J. (2019). Age, values, farming objectives, past management decisions, and future intentions in New Zealand agriculture. Journal of Environmental Management, 231(February 1st), 110–120. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.10.018
Burja, V., Tamas-Szora, A., & Dobra, I. B. (2020). Land Concentration, LLand Grabbing and Sustainable Development of Agriculture. Sustainability, 12(5), 1–19. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3390/su12052137
Bush, S. R., Oosterveer, P., Bottema, M., Meuwissen, M., de Mey, Y., Chamsai, S., Lien, H. H., & Chadag, M. (2019). Inclusive environmental performance through ‘beyond-farm’ aquaculture governance. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 41(November), 49–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2019.09.013
Butkova, O. (2020). The definition of capital as an economic and accounting category. E3S Web of Conferences, 175, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202017513011
Carlson, K. M., Heilmayr, R., Gibbs, H. K., Noojipady, P., Burns, D. N., Morton, D. C., Walker, N. F., Paoli, G. D., & Kremen, C. (2018). Effect of oil palm sustainability certification on deforestation and fire in Indonesia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 115(1), 121–126. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1704728114
Ceschin, F., & Gaziulusoy, I. (2016). Evolution of design for sustainability: From product design to design for system innovations and transitions. Design Studies, 47, 118–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.destud.2016.09.002
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (First Edit). Routledge Academic. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203771587
Daemeter Consulting. (2015). Overview of Indonesian Oil Palm Smallholder Farmers: A Typology of Organizational Models, Needs, and Investment Opportunities. In Daemeter Consulting (Issue November). Daemeter Consulting.
Dharmawan, A. H., Mardiyaningsih, D. I., Rahmadian, F., Yulian, B. E., Komarudin, H., Pacheco, P., Ghazoul, J., & Amalia, R. (2021). The agrarian, structural and cultural constraints of smallholders’ readiness for sustainability standards implementation: The case of indonesian sustainable palm oil in east Kalimantan. Sustainability (Switzerland), 13(5), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13052611
Didiet, N. (2021). SMALLHOLDERS. Musim Mas.
Efeca. (2020). Palm Oil Certification Schemes : MSPO (Issue March).
Eizenberg, E., & Jabareen, Y. (2017). Social sustainability: A new conceptual framework. Sustainability (Switzerland), 9(1), 68. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9010068
Evans, S., Fernando, L., & Yang, M. (2017). Sustainable Value Creation—From Concept Towards Implementation. In C. Herrmann & S. Kara (Eds.), Sustainable Manufacturing, Sustainable Production, Life Cycle Engineering and Management (pp. 203–220). Springer Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-48514-0_13
Faily, L. (2016). Social Harmony. An Iraqi Perspective.
Felipe, J., Dacuycuy, C., Lanzafame, M., Felipe, J., Dacuycuy, C., & Lanzafame, M. (2014). ThE DEClining ShARE of AgRiCulTuRAl EmPloymEnT in ThE PEoPlE ’ S REPuBliC of ChinA : how fAST ? adb economics working paper series in the People ’ s Republic of China : How Fast ? (Issue 419). https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/149676/ewp-419.pdf
Gardner, T. A., Benzie, M., Börner, J., Dawkins, E., Fick, S., Garrett, R., Godar, J., Grimard, A., Lake, S., Larsen, R. K., Mardas, N., McDermott, C. L., Meyfroidt, P., Osbeck, M., Persson, M., Sembres, T., Suavet, C., Strassburg, B., Trevisan, A., … Wolvekamp, P. (2019). Transparency and sustainability in global commodity supply chains. World Development, 121, 163–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.05.025
Giagnocavo, C., Bienvenido, F., Li, M., Zhao, Y. R., Sanchez-Molina, J. A., & Yang, X. T. (2017). Agricultural cooperatives and the role of organisational models in new intelligent traceability systems and big data analysis. International Journal of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, 10(5), 115–125. https://doi.org/10.25165/j.ijabe.20171005.3089
Goedde, T. (2016). Wildfire prevention , preparedness and response Capitalise on momentum from the 2015 / 2016 fires (Issue August).
Guo, G., Wen, Q., & Zhu, J. (2015). The Impact of Aging Agricultural Labor Population on Farmland Output : From the Perspective of Farmer Preferences. Mathematical Problems in Engineering, 15(4), 1–7. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/730618
Hidayat, N. K., Offermans, A., & Glasbergen, P. (2018). Sustainable palm oil as a public responsibility? On the governance capacity of Indonesian Standard for Sustainable Palm Oil (ISPO). Agriculture and Human Values, 35(1), 223–242. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-017-9816-6
Holbert, R. L., & Stephenson, M. T. (2002). Structural Equation Modeling in the Communication Sciences, 1995–2000. Human Communication Research, 28(4), 531–551. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2002.tb00822.x
Hooper, D., Coughlan, J., Mullen, M. R., Mullen, J., Hooper, D., Coughlan, J., & Mullen, M. R. (2008). Structural Equation Modelling : Guidelines for Determining Model Fit Structural equation modelling : guidelines for determining model fit. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods (EJBRM), 6(1), 53–60.
Huq, F. A., & Stevenson, M. (2020). Implementing Socially Sustainable Practices in Challenging Institutional Contexts: Building Theory from Seven Developing Country Supplier Cases. Journal of Business Ethics, 161(2), 415–442. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-018-3951-x
ILO. (2009). Collective Bargaining: Negotiating for Social Justice. High-Level Tripartite Meeting on Collective Bargaining, 19-20 November 2009, November, 19–20.
INOBU. (2016). A Profile of Oil Palm Smallholders and Their Challenges of Farming Independently. The case of Seruyan and Kotawaringin Barat district in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia.
Jelsma, I., Schoneveld, G. C., Zoomers, A., & van Westen, A. C. M. (2017). Unpacking Indonesia’s independent oil palm smallholders: An actor-disaggregated approach to identifying environmental and social performance challenges. Land Use Policy, 69, 281–297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.08.012
Jorgi, R. S., Gayatri, S., & Dalmiyatun, T. (2019). Hubungan Tingkat Pengetahuan Petani dengan Efektivitas Pelaksanaan Program Kartu Tani di Kabupaten Semarang. AGRARIS: Journal of Agribusiness and Rural Development Research, 5(2), 88–98. https://doi.org/: http://dx.doi.org/10.18196/agr.5278
Kahan, D. (2016). The role of the FARM MANAGEMENT SPECIALIST in extension. Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies, 54(3), 136.
Kantabutra, S. (2020). Toward an organizational theory of sustainability vision. Sustainability (Switzerland), 12(3), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12031125
Karakaya-Ozyer, K., & Aksu-Dunya, B. (2018). A review of structural equation modeling applications in Turkish educational science literature, 2010-2015. International Journal of Research in Education and Science, 4(1), 279–291. https://doi.org/10.21890/ijres.383177
Karim, M. R. (2018). Effectiveness of Agricultural Extension System in the Implementation of Relevant Policies of Bangladesh. In K. Alam (Ed.), Bangladesh: Economic, Political and Social Issues (pp. 65–93). Nova Science Publishers, Inc. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328942663_Effectiveness_of_Agricultural_Extension_System_in_the_Implementation_of_Relevant_Policies_of_Bangladesh
Karji, A., Namian, M., & Tafazzoli, M. (2020). Identifying the key barriers to promote sustainable construction in the United States: A principal component analysis. Sustainability (Switzerland), 12(12), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12125088
Karki, S., Burton, P., & Mackey, B. (2020). The experiences and perceptions of farmers about the impacts of climate change and variability on crop production: a review. Climate and Development, 12(1), 80–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2019.1603096
Kementan. (2020). PENYELENGGARAAN SERTIFIKASI PERKEBUNAN KELAPA SAWIT BERKELANJUTAN INDONESIA. PERATURAN MENTERI PERTANIAN REPUBLIK INDONESIA.
Khatun, R., Reza, M. I. H., Moniruzzaman, M., & Yaakob, Z. (2017). Sustainable oil palm industry: The possibilities. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 76(March), 608–619. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.03.077
Kostov, P., Davidova, S., & Bailey, A. (2018). Effect of family labour on output of farms in selected EU Member States: A nonparametric quantile regression approach. European Review of Agricultural Economics, 45(3), 367–395. https://doi.org/10.1093/erae/jbx036
Lagarde, M., & Blaauw, D. (2021). Effects of incentive framing on performance and effort: evidence from a medically framed experiment. Journal of the Economic Science Association, 7(1), 33–48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40881-021-00100-0
Lassiter, J. (2020). Product certifications not a certainty of legal compliance. Natural Product Insider.
Ledford, A. K., & Lynch, S. M. (2019). Comparing Theories of Resource Distribution: The Case of Iran. Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World, 5, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/2378023119886406
Lee, D. H. (2018). The Effect of Safety Management and Sustainable Activities on Sustainable Performance: Focusing on Suppliers. Sustainability, 10(12), 4796. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3390/su10124796
Levin, J. (2012). Analysis of Incremental Financial Costs and Benefits Profitability and Sustainability in Palm Oil Production.
Licht, A. N. (2008). Social norms and the law: Why peoples obey the law. Review of Law and Economics, 4(3), 715–750. https://doi.org/10.2202/1555-5879.1232
Liverpool-Tasie, L. S. O., Wineman, A., Young, S., Tambo, J., Vargas, C., Reardon, T., Adjognon, G. S., Porciello, J., Gathoni, N., Bizikova, L., Galiè, A., & Celestin, A. (2020). A scoping review of market links between value chain actors and small-scale producers in developing regions. Nature Sustainability, 3(10), 799–808. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-020-00621-2
Logan, F. A. (1968). Incentive Theory and Changes in Reward. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 2, 1–30. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60420-X
Mangeni, B. (2019). The role of public-private partnerships (PPPs) in ensuring technology access for farmers in sub-Saharan Africa. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development, 19(1), 14137–14155. https://doi.org/10.18697/AJFAND.84.BLFB1018
Medda-Windischer, R. (2002). Legal Indicators for Social Inclusion of New Minorities Generated by Immigration. European Yearbook of Minority Issues Online, 2(1), 381–395. https://doi.org/10.1163/221161103x00184
Mehan, A. (2017). An Integrated Model of Achieving Social Sustainability in Urban Context through Theory of Affordance. Procedia Engineering, 198(September 2016), 17–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.07.070
Melo, V. (2018). Collaborative Efforts for Sustainable Development: Surveying the Literature on Multi-Stakeholder Initiatives to Realize the Sustainable Development Goals (Issue October). https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.19706.75209
Mensah, J. (2019). Sustainable development: Meaning, history, principles, pillars, and implications for human action: Literature review. Cogent Social Sciences, 5(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2019.1653531
Mishra, M. K. (2020). www.econstor.eu.
Molenaar, J. W., Dallinger, J., Gorter, J., Heilbron, L., Simons, L., Blackmore, E., & Vorley, B. (2015). The role of voluntary sustainability standards in scaling up sustainability in smallholder-dominated agricultural sectors.
Nadhira, S., & Basuni, S. (2021). Implementation of the concept of conservation area buffer zone in Indonesia. Jurnal Manajemen Hutan Tropika, 27(1), 32–41. https://doi.org/10.7226/
JTFM.27.1.32
Narimawati, U., & Sarwono, J. (2017). Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). Salemba Empat.
Nashr, F., Putri, E. I. K., Dharmawan, A. H., & Fauzi, A. (2021). The sustainability of independent palm oil smallholders in multi-tier supply chains in East Kalimantan Indonesia. International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning, 16(4), 771–781. https://doi.org/10.18280/
ijsdp.160418
Nurliza, Dolorosa, E., Suryadi, U. E. (2018). Discrepancy between Knowledge and Competency of Independent Smallholder Farmers for Sustainable Palm Oil. Jurnal Penyuluhan, 14(1), 179–191. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.22500/142018
Nurliza. (2020). Creating Strategic Competence of Independent Smallholders for Sustainable Palm Oil. Jurnal Penyuluhan, 16(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.25015/16202026194
Nurliza, Nugraha, A., & Muthahhari, M. (2022). PEMBANGUNAN PEDESAAN INKLUSIF: PRIORITAS INTERVENSI STRATEGIS (First). IAIN Press.
Otero, I., Farrell, K. N., Pueyo, S., Kallis, G., Kehoe, L., Haberl, H., Plutzar, C., Hobson, P., García-Márquez, J., Rodríguez-Labajos, B., Martin, J. L., Erb, K. H., Schindler, S., Nielsen, J., Skorin, T., Settele, J., Essl, F., Gómez-Baggethun, E., Brotons, L., … Pe’er, G. (2020). Biodiversity policy beyond economic growth. Conservation Letters, 13(4), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12713
Pacheco, P., Gnych, S., Dermawan, A., Komarudin, H, and Okarda, B. (2017). The palm oil global value chain: Implications for economic growth and social and environmental sustainability. In The palm oil global value chain: Implications for economic growth and social and environmental sustainability. https://doi.org/10.17528/cifor/006405
Paltasingh, K. R., & Goyari, P. (2018). Impact of farmer education on farm productivity under varying technologies: case of paddy growers in India. Agricultural and Food Economics, 6(1), 7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40100-018-0101-9
Pasaribu, S. I., Vanclay, F., & Zhao, Y. (2020). Challenges to Implementing Socially-Sustainable Community Development in Oil Palm and Forestry Operations in Indonesia. In Land (Vol. 9, Issue 3, pp. 1–19). https://doi.org/10.3390/land9030061
Pelimina, B. M., & Justin, K. U. (2015). The contribution of farmers organizations to smallholder farmers well-being: A case study of Kasulu district, Tanzania. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 10(23), 2343–2349. https://doi.org/10.5897/ajar2014.9261
Piñeiro, V., Arias, J., Elverdin, P., Ibáñez, A. M., Morales Opazo, C., Prager, S., & Torero, M. (2021). Achieving sustainable agricultural practices: From incentives to adoption and outcomes (Vol. 3, Issue February).
Purba, J., Napitupulu, D., & Damayanti, Y. (2020). Comparative Analysis of Paddy and Oil Palm Farm Income in Tanjung Jabung Timur Regency. Jurnal Manajemen Dan Agribisnis, 16(3), 194–200. https://doi.org/10.17358/jma.16.3.194
Raharja, S., Marimin, Machfud, Papilo, P., Safriyana, Massijaya, M. Y., Asrol, M., & Darmawan, M. A. (2020). Institutional strengthening model of oil palm independent smallholder in Riau and Jambi Provinces, Indonesia. Heliyon, 6(5), E03875. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03875
Ratner, B. (2009). The correlation coefficient: Its values range between 1/1, or do they. Journal of Targeting, Measurement and Analysis for Marketing, 17(2), 139–142. https://doi.org/10.1057/jt.2009.5
Rezaei-Moghaddam, K., & Karami, E. (2008). Developing a green agricultural extension theory. International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning, 3(3), 242–256. https://doi.org/10.2495/SDP-V3-N3-242-256
Rival, A. (2018). Achieving sustainable cultivation of oil palm Volume 1. In A. Rival (Ed.), Achieving sustainable cultivation of oil palm Volume 1 (Vol. 1, pp. 1–23). Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351114387
Rosenberg, Benjamin D. & Navarro, M. A. (2018). The SAGE Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Measurement, and Evaluation. In B. B. Frey (Ed.), The SAGE Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Measurement, and Evaluation (Issue January 2017). SAGE Publications, Inc.. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781506326139
Roy, E. De, Jang, C., Krüger, C., Lugger, M., Moussas, F., Muthike, W., Ojha, A., Peterson, N., Prowse, M., Yagnaraman, D., & Puri, J. (2021). Behavioural science, decision making and climate investments. In IEU learning paper.
Salkind, N. (2008). Quantitative Research Methods. In N. J. Salkind & K. Rasmussen (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology (1st ed., pp. 107–143). SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412963848.n224
Samson, J., Francisco, R., Gloria, R., & Naval, D. (2021). Transforming agriculture in Asia. In Asian Development Outlook 2021 update (Issue September). file:///C:/Users/HP/Documents/ME - CLO 2 - ado2021-update-theme-chapter.pdf
Seidler, R. and Bawa, K. S. (2016). Dimensions of Sustainable Developmentidler, R.; Bawa, K. S. In Religion, Culture and Sustainable Development (Vol. 3, p. 161). Eolss Publishers.
Senanayake, S. G. J. N. (2006). Indigenous knowledge as a key to sustainable development. Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 2(1), 87–94. https://doi.org/10.4038/jas.v2i1.8117
Shimelles, T., Islam, K. M. Z., & Parviainen, T. (2009). Effects of Land Tenure and Porperty Rights on Agricultural Productivity. In University of Helsinki, Helsinki.
Sideridis, G., Saddaawi, A., & Al-Harbi, K. (2018). Internal consistency reliability in measurement: Aggregate and multilevel approaches. Journal of Modern Applied Statistical Methods, 17(1), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.22237/jmasm/1530027194
SIIA. (2018). Financing Indonesia’s Independent Smallholders (Issue 5).
Slamet, A. S., Hadiguna, R. A., & Mulyati, H. (2020). Making food supply chain sustainable: participating smallholder farmers in modern retail channels. International Journal of Sustainable Agricultural Management and Informatics, 6(2), 135. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJSAMI.2020.108361
Statista-Research-Department. (2021a). Area of smallholder oil palm estates Indonesia 2010-2019. Www.Statista.Com.
Statista-Research-Department. (2021b). Size of oil palm plantations Indonesia 2010-2019. Ww.Statista.Com.
Suhada, T. A., Bagja, B., & Saleh, S. (2018a). Smallholder Farmers Are Key to Making the Palm Oil Industry Sustainable. WRI-Indonesia.
Suhada, T. A., Bagja, B., & Saleh, S. (2018b). Smallholder Farmers Are Key to Making the Palm Oil Industry Sustainable. WRI Indonesia.
Svotwa, E., Ndangana, F., Manyanhaire, O. I., & Mushava. (2007). Veld Fire Risk Assessment and Community Based Control. Sustainable Development in Africa, 9(2), 134–148.
Takahashi, H., Ban, M., & Asada, M. (2016). Semantic Differential Scale Method Can Reveal Multi-Dimensional Aspects of Mind Perception . In Frontiers in Psychology (Vol. 7, p. 1717).
Tolno, E., Kobayashi, H., Ichizen, M., Esham, M., & Balde, B. S. (2015). Economic Analysis of the Role of Farmer Organizations in Enhancing Smallholder Potato Farmers’ Income in Middle Guinea. Journal of Agricultural Science, 7(3). https://doi.org/10.5539/jas.v7n3p123
Tongco, M. D. C. (2007). Purposive sampling as a tool for informant selection. Ethnobotany Research and Applications, 5, 147–158. https://doi.org/10.17348/era.5.0.147-158
Underhill, K. (2019). Money That Costs Too Much: Regulating Financial Incentives. Indiana Law Journal, 94(3), 1109–1162.
Uning, R., Latif, M. T., Othman, M., Juneng, L., Hanif, N. M., Nadzir, M. S. M., Maulud, K. N. A., Jaafar, W. S. W. M., Said, N. F. S., Ahamad, F., & Takriff, M. S. (2020). A review of southeast Asian oil palm and its CO2 fluxes. Sustainability (Switzerland), 12(12), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12125077
UNISDR. (2008). Environment and disaster reduction : emerging perspectives. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
Voora, V., Larrea, C., Bermudez, S., & Baliño, S. (2019). Global Market Report : Palm Oil. In International Institute for Sustainable Development.
Yaap, B., & Paoli, G. (2014). A Comparison of Leading Palm Oil Certification Standards Applied in Indonesia: Towards Defining Emerging Norms of Good Practices. In Towards Defining Emerging Norms of Good Practices (Vol. 6, Issue May).
Zeweld, W., Van Huylenbroeck, G., Tesfay, G., & Speelman, S. (2017). Smallholder farmers’ behavioural intentions towards sustainable agricultural practices. Journal of Environmental Management, 187, 71–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.11.014
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. - Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
