Vegetation structure, biomass, and carbon of Mangrove Forests in Ambon Bay, Maluku, Indonesia
Abstract
Mangrove forests serve a substantial part in coastal areas as high-carbon-storage woody vegetation ecosystems that grow on muddy and anaerobic soils. This study determined the species composition and estimated the biomass production and storage of carbon in Ambon Bay mangrove forests. Vegetation surveys for species composition were conducted using the square plot technique by making standard observation plots for density, frequency, dominance, and important value index data analysis. We used Allometric equations and the Loss-on-ignition method to calculate the biomass and soil carbon. Vegetation surveys revealed eight species of tree-habitus mangroves, and Sonneratia alba was a mono-dominant species with an important value index of more than 100%. The study revealed the highest average potential of biomass and carbon in Passo Village with AGB 280.47±168.94 Mg ha-1, BGB 83.06±55.1 Mg ha-1, and sediment carbon 320.03±106.97 Mg C ha-1. The carbon stock of the mangrove forest in Ambon Bay was estimated at 400.67±166.25 Mg C ha-1. We conclude that mangrove forest carbon stores in Ambon Bay had relatively high values. Passo Village has the largest carbon store compared to other locations in the Ambon Bay mangrove forest.
References
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Barbier EB. 2016. The protective service of mangrove ecosystems: A review of valuation methods. Marine pollution bulletin. 109(2):676-6. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.01.033
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Cheng Y, Zhang C, Zhao X, Von Gadow K. 2018. Biomass-dominant species shape the productivity-diversity relationship in two temperate forests. Annals of forest science. 75(4): 1-9. doi:10.1007/s13595-018-0780-0.
Dendang B, Handayani W. 2015. Struktur dan komposisi tegakan hutan di taman nasional gunung Gede Pangrango, Jawa Barat. Pros sem nas masy biodiv Indon. 1(4): 691-695. doi: 10.13057/psnmbi/m010401.
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Direktorat konservasi tanah dan air, ditjen pdasrh. 2021. Peta mangrove nasional tahun 2021.
Donata DC, Kauffman JB, Murdiyarso D, Kurnianto S, Stidham M, Kanninen M. 2021. Mangroves among the most carbon-rich forests in the tropics. Nature geoscience. 4(5): 293-297.
Fichtner A, Hardtle W, Bruelheide H, Kunz M, Li y, Von Oheimb G. 2018. Neighbourhood interactions drive overyielding in mixed-species tree communities. Nature communications. 9(1). Doi:10.1111/1365-2745.12839
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Giri C. 2021. Recent advancement in mangrove forest mapping and monitoring of the world using earth observation satellite data. Remote sensing. 13(4): 563. doi:10.3390/rs13040563
Goessens A, Satyanarayana B,Van Der Stocken T, Zuniga MQ, Mohd-Lokman H, Sulong I, Dahdouh-Guebas F. 2014. Is matang mangrove forest in Malaysia sustainably rejuvenating after more than a century of conservation and harvesting management?. Plos one .9. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0105069.
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Hasegawa A, Oyanagi T, Minagawa R, Fujii Y, Sasamoto H. 2014. An inverse relationship between allelopathic activity and salt tolerance in suspension cultures of three mangrove species, Sonneratia alba, S. caseolaris and S. ovata: development of a bioassay method for allelopathy, the protoplast co-culture method. Journal of plant research. 127(6): 755–761. doi:10.1007/s10265-014-0651-1.
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Hennink S, Zeven AC. 1990. The interpretation of nei and Shannon-Weaver within population variation indices. Euphytica. 51(3): 235-240. doi:10.1007/bf00039724.
Idrus AA, Syukur A, Zulkifli L. 2019. The diversity of fauna in mangrove community: success replanting of mangroves species in south coastal East Lombok, Indonesia. J phys: conf ser. 1402(3): 033042. doi: 10.1088/1742-6596/1402/3/033042.
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Jenoh EM, Robert EM, Lehmann I, Kioko E, Bosire O, Ngisiange N, Koedam N. 2016. Wide ranging insect infestation of the pioneer mangrove Sonneratia alba by two insect species along the Kenyan coast. Plos one. 11(5): e0154849). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0154849.
Kalor JD, Indrayani E, Akobiarek MN. 2019. Fisheries resources of mangrove ecosystem in Demta Gulf, Jayapura, Papua, Indonesia. Aquaculture, aquarium, conservation & legislation. 12(1): 219-229.
Kaper HG, Rousseau C. 2019. Mathematics of planet earth. Notices of the american mathematical society. 66(1). doi:10.1090/noti1977.
Khumbongmayum AD, Khan ML, Tripathi RS. 2006. Biodiversity conservation in sacred groves of manipur, Northeast India: population structure and regeneration status of woody species. In human exploitation and biodiversity conservation (pp. 99-116). Springer, dordrecht. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-5283-5_7.
Komiyama A, Poungparn S, Kato S. 2005. Common allometric equations for estimating the tree weight of mangroves. Journal of tropical ecology. 21(4): 471-477. Doi:10.1017/s0266467405002476.
Komiyama A, Ong JE, Poungparn S. 2008. Allometry, biomass, and productivity of mangrove forests: a review. Aquatic botany. 89(2): 128-137. doi:10.1016/j.aquabot.2007.12.006.
Kusmana C. 1992. Production structure of main commercial tree species in a mangrove forest in East Sumatera, Indonesia. Biotropia. The southeast asian journal of tropical biology. 5.
Kusmana C. 2009. Distribution and current status of mangrove forest in Indonesia.
Kusumaningtyas MA, Hutahaean AA, Fischer HW, Pérez-Mayo M, Ransby D, Jennerjahn TC. 2019. Variability in the organic carbon stocks, sources, and accumulation rates of Indonesian mangrove ecosystems. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 218:310-323. doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2018.12.007
Lange M, Eisenhauer N, Sierra CA, Bessler H, Engels C, Griffiths RI, Gleixner G. 2015. Plant diversity increases soil microbial activity and soil carbon storage. Nature communications. 6(1): 1-8. doi:10.1038/ncomms7707.
Li Y, Dong S, Liu S, SU X, Wang X, Zhang Y, Tang L. 2019. Relationships between plant diversity and biomass production of alpine grasslands are dependent on the spatial scale and the dimension of biodiversity. Ecological engineering. 127: 375-382. doi:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2018.12.015.
Liu C, Li Z, Chang X, He J, Nie X, Liu L, Zeng G. 2018. Soil carbon and nitrogen sources and redistribution as affected by erosion and deposition processes: a case study in a loess Hilly-Gully catchment, China. Agriculture, ecosystems & environment. 253: 11-22. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2017.10.028.
Lovelock CE, Duarte CM. 2019. Dimensions of blue carbon and emerging perspectives. Biology letters. 15(3): 20180781. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2018.0781.
Mackenzie RA, Foulk PB, Klump JV, Weckerly K, Purbospito J, Murdiyarso D, Nam VN. 2016. Sedimentation and belowground carbon accumulation rates in mangrove forests that differ in diversity and land use: a tale of two mangroves. Wetlands ecology and management. 24(2): 245-261. Doi:10.1007/s11273.
Madiama S, Muryani C, Santosa S. 2016. Kajian perubahan luas dan pemanfaatan serta persepsi masyarakat terhadap pelestarian hutan mangrove di kecamatan Teluk Ambon Baguala. Geoeco. 2(2).
Magurran AE. 1988. Diversity indices and species abundance models. In ecological diversity and its measurement. Springer, dordrecht. 7-45.
Motlagh MG, Kafaky SB, Mataji A, Akhavan R, Amraei B. 2020. An introduction to the distribution of carbon stocks in temperate broadleaf forests of Northern Iran. J. For. Sci. 66(2): 70–79. doi: 10.17221/149/2019-jfs.
Mullet Earl Kevin C, Haydn Lacorte Giuseppe, Hamiladan Rea Mae A. 2014 assessment of mangrove species and its relation to soil substrates in Malapatan, Sarangani Province, Philippines. Journal of biodiversity and environmental sciences. 5(4): 100-107.
Natividad. 2015. Vegetation analysis and community structure of mangrove in Alabel and Maasim Sarangani. Journal agricultural and biological science. 10(3): 97-102.
Opuni-Frimpong E, Gabienu E, Adusu D, Opuni-Frimpong NY, Damptey FG. 2021. Plant diversity, conservation significance, and community structure of two protected areas under different governance. Trees, forests and people. 4: 100082. doi:10.1016/j.tfp.2021.100082.
Ouyang X, Lee SY. 2020. Improved estimates on global carbon stock and carbon pools in tidal wetlands. Nature communications. 11(1): 1-7. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-14120-2.
Pielou EC. 1966. The measurement of diversity in different types of biological collections. Journal of theoretical biology. 13: 131-144. doi:10.1016/0022-5193(66)90013-0.
Rao MN, Anguly D, Prasad MHK, Singh G, Purvaja R, Biswal M, Ramesh R. 2021. Interspecific variations in mangrove stem biomass: a potential storehouse of sequestered carbon. Regional studies in marine science. 48: 102044. doi:10.1016/j.rsma.2021.102044.
Rasquinha DN, Mishra DR. 2021. Impact of wood harvesting on mangrove forest structure, composition and biomass dynamics in India. Estuarine, coastal and shelf science. 248: 106974. doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2020.106974.
Rey A, Pegoraro E, Oyonarte C, Were A, Escribano P, Raimundo J. 2011. Impact of land degradation on soil respiration in a steppe (stipa tenacissima l.) Semi-arid ecosystem in the se of Spain. Soil biology and biochemistry. 43(2): 393-403. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2010.11.007.
Rotua PJ. 2013. Kajian vegetasi mangrove di Teluk Ambon dalam dengan menggunakan teknik penginderaan jarak jauh. [Skripsi]. Universitas pattimura.
Rovai AS, Twilley RR, Castañeda-Moya E, Riul P, Cifuentes-Jara M, Manrow-Villalobos M, Horta PA, Simonassi JC, Fonseca AL, Pagliosa PR. Global controls on carbon storage in mangrove soils. Nat. Clim. Chang. 2018. 8:534–538. doi:10.3390/plants10091965.
Sanderman J. 2017. Global mangrove soil carbon: dataset and spatial maps. Harvard dataverse. doi:10.7910/dvn/ocyuit.
Schile LM, Kauffman JB, Crooks S, Fourqurean JW, Glavan J, Megonigal JP. 2017. Limits on carbon sequestration in Arid blue carbon ecosystems. Ecological applications. 27(3): 859-874. doi:/10.1002/eap.1489.
Sharma CM, Mishra AK, Krishan R, Tiwari OP, Rana YS. 2015. Variation in vegetation composition, biomass production, and carbon storage in Ridge top forests of high mountains of Garhwal Himalaya. Journal of sustainable forestry. 35(2): 119–132. doi:10.1080/10549811.2015.111838.
Srivastava PBL, Bal S. 1984. Composition and distribution pattern of natural regeneration after second thinning in matang mangrove reserves, Perak, Malaysia. In proceedings of the asian symposium on mangrove environment- research and management. 761-784.
Suyadi S. 2017. Satu dekade kondisi hutan mangrove di Teluk Ambon, maluku (A decade of mangrove forest condition in Ambon bay, Maluku). Jurnal biologi indonesia. 8(1).
Taju M, Marelign A. 2022. Carbon stock and climate change mitigation potential of Godebe National Park, North West Ethiopia. Proceedings of the International Academy of Ecology and Environmental Sciences. 12(1):17-30.
Turnbull LA, Levine JM, Hector A. 2013. Coexistence, niches and biodiversity effects on ecosystem functioning. Ecology letters. 16: 116-127. doi:10.1111/ele.12056.
Ulqodry TZ, Suganda A, Agussalim A, Aryawati R, Absori A. 2020. Estimasi serapan karbon mangrove melalui proses fotosintesis di Taman Nasional Berbak-Sembilang. Jurnal Kelautan Nasional. 15(2):77-84.
Virgulino-Júnior PC, Gardunho DC, Silva DN, Fernandes ME. 2020. Wood density in mangrove forests on the Brazilian Amazon Coast. Trees. 34(1): 51-60. doi:10.1007/s00468-019-01896-5.
Wang G, Guan D, Xiao L, Peart MR. 2019. Ecosystem carbon storage affected by intertidal locations and climatic factors in three estuarine mangrove forests of South China. Regional environmental change. 19(6): 1701-1712. doi: 10.1007/s10113-019-01515-6.
Zuppinger-Dingley D, Schmid B, Petermann JS, Yadav V, De Deyn GB, Flynn DF. 2014. Selection for niche differentiation in plant communities increases biodiversity effects. Nature. 515(7525): 108-111. doi: 10.1038/nature13869.
Azman MS, Sharma S, Shaharudin MAM, Hamzah ML, Adibah SN, Zakaria RM, Mackenzie RA. 2021. Stand structure, biomass and dynamics of naturally regenerated and restored mangroves in Malaysia. Forest ecology and management. 482: 118852. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2020.118852.
Barbier EB. 2016. The protective service of mangrove ecosystems: A review of valuation methods. Marine pollution bulletin. 109(2):676-6. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.01.033
Ben‐Dor E, Banin A. 1989. Determination of organic matter content in arid‐zone soils using a simple “Loss‐On‐Ignition” method. Communications in soil science and plant analysis. 20: 15-16. 1675-1695. doi:10.1080/00103628909368175.
Bindu G, Rajan P, Jishnu ES, Joseph KA. 2020. Carbon stock assessment of mangrove using remote sensing and geographic information system. The egyptian journal of remote sensing and space science. 23(1): 1-9. doi:10.1016/j.ejrs.2018.04.006.
Cheng Y, Zhang C, Zhao X, Von Gadow K. 2018. Biomass-dominant species shape the productivity-diversity relationship in two temperate forests. Annals of forest science. 75(4): 1-9. doi:10.1007/s13595-018-0780-0.
Dendang B, Handayani W. 2015. Struktur dan komposisi tegakan hutan di taman nasional gunung Gede Pangrango, Jawa Barat. Pros sem nas masy biodiv Indon. 1(4): 691-695. doi: 10.13057/psnmbi/m010401.
Dinilhuda A, Akbar AA, Jumiati J. 2018. Peran ekosistem mangrove bagi mitigasi pemanasan global. Jurnal teknik sipil. 18(2). doi:10.26418/jtsft.v18i2.31233
Direktorat konservasi tanah dan air, ditjen pdasrh. 2021. Peta mangrove nasional tahun 2021.
Donata DC, Kauffman JB, Murdiyarso D, Kurnianto S, Stidham M, Kanninen M. 2021. Mangroves among the most carbon-rich forests in the tropics. Nature geoscience. 4(5): 293-297.
Fichtner A, Hardtle W, Bruelheide H, Kunz M, Li y, Von Oheimb G. 2018. Neighbourhood interactions drive overyielding in mixed-species tree communities. Nature communications. 9(1). Doi:10.1111/1365-2745.12839
Gan BK. 1995. A working plan for the matang mangrove forest reserve (fourth revision). Perak: the state forest department of Perak Darul Ridzuan 214pp.
Giri C. 2021. Recent advancement in mangrove forest mapping and monitoring of the world using earth observation satellite data. Remote sensing. 13(4): 563. doi:10.3390/rs13040563
Goessens A, Satyanarayana B,Van Der Stocken T, Zuniga MQ, Mohd-Lokman H, Sulong I, Dahdouh-Guebas F. 2014. Is matang mangrove forest in Malaysia sustainably rejuvenating after more than a century of conservation and harvesting management?. Plos one .9. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0105069.
Hamilton SE, Lovette J. 2015. Ecuador’s mangrove forest carbon stocks: a spatiotemporal analysis of living carbon holdings and their depletion since the advent of commercial aquaculture. Plos one. 1093: e0118880. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0118880.
Hasegawa A, Oyanagi T, Minagawa R, Fujii Y, Sasamoto H. 2014. An inverse relationship between allelopathic activity and salt tolerance in suspension cultures of three mangrove species, Sonneratia alba, S. caseolaris and S. ovata: development of a bioassay method for allelopathy, the protoplast co-culture method. Journal of plant research. 127(6): 755–761. doi:10.1007/s10265-014-0651-1.
Herman Siringoringo. 2014. The important role of managing carbon sequestration in soil. Journal of forestry policy analysis. 11(2): 175–192. doi:10.20886/jakk.2014.11.2.175-192.
Hennink S, Zeven AC. 1990. The interpretation of nei and Shannon-Weaver within population variation indices. Euphytica. 51(3): 235-240. doi:10.1007/bf00039724.
Idrus AA, Syukur A, Zulkifli L. 2019. The diversity of fauna in mangrove community: success replanting of mangroves species in south coastal East Lombok, Indonesia. J phys: conf ser. 1402(3): 033042. doi: 10.1088/1742-6596/1402/3/033042.
IPCC 2008, 2006. IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories – A primer, Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, Eggleston H.S., Miwa K., Srivastava N. and Tanabe K. (eds). Published: IGES, Japan
IPCC 2014, 2013. Supplement to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories: Wetlands, Hiraishi, T., Krug, T., Tanabe, K., Srivastava, N., Baasansuren, J., Fukuda, M. and Troxler, T.G. (eds). Published: IPCC. Switzerland.
Jenoh EM, Robert EM, Lehmann I, Kioko E, Bosire O, Ngisiange N, Koedam N. 2016. Wide ranging insect infestation of the pioneer mangrove Sonneratia alba by two insect species along the Kenyan coast. Plos one. 11(5): e0154849). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0154849.
Kalor JD, Indrayani E, Akobiarek MN. 2019. Fisheries resources of mangrove ecosystem in Demta Gulf, Jayapura, Papua, Indonesia. Aquaculture, aquarium, conservation & legislation. 12(1): 219-229.
Kaper HG, Rousseau C. 2019. Mathematics of planet earth. Notices of the american mathematical society. 66(1). doi:10.1090/noti1977.
Khumbongmayum AD, Khan ML, Tripathi RS. 2006. Biodiversity conservation in sacred groves of manipur, Northeast India: population structure and regeneration status of woody species. In human exploitation and biodiversity conservation (pp. 99-116). Springer, dordrecht. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-5283-5_7.
Komiyama A, Poungparn S, Kato S. 2005. Common allometric equations for estimating the tree weight of mangroves. Journal of tropical ecology. 21(4): 471-477. Doi:10.1017/s0266467405002476.
Komiyama A, Ong JE, Poungparn S. 2008. Allometry, biomass, and productivity of mangrove forests: a review. Aquatic botany. 89(2): 128-137. doi:10.1016/j.aquabot.2007.12.006.
Kusmana C. 1992. Production structure of main commercial tree species in a mangrove forest in East Sumatera, Indonesia. Biotropia. The southeast asian journal of tropical biology. 5.
Kusmana C. 2009. Distribution and current status of mangrove forest in Indonesia.
Kusumaningtyas MA, Hutahaean AA, Fischer HW, Pérez-Mayo M, Ransby D, Jennerjahn TC. 2019. Variability in the organic carbon stocks, sources, and accumulation rates of Indonesian mangrove ecosystems. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 218:310-323. doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2018.12.007
Lange M, Eisenhauer N, Sierra CA, Bessler H, Engels C, Griffiths RI, Gleixner G. 2015. Plant diversity increases soil microbial activity and soil carbon storage. Nature communications. 6(1): 1-8. doi:10.1038/ncomms7707.
Li Y, Dong S, Liu S, SU X, Wang X, Zhang Y, Tang L. 2019. Relationships between plant diversity and biomass production of alpine grasslands are dependent on the spatial scale and the dimension of biodiversity. Ecological engineering. 127: 375-382. doi:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2018.12.015.
Liu C, Li Z, Chang X, He J, Nie X, Liu L, Zeng G. 2018. Soil carbon and nitrogen sources and redistribution as affected by erosion and deposition processes: a case study in a loess Hilly-Gully catchment, China. Agriculture, ecosystems & environment. 253: 11-22. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2017.10.028.
Lovelock CE, Duarte CM. 2019. Dimensions of blue carbon and emerging perspectives. Biology letters. 15(3): 20180781. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2018.0781.
Mackenzie RA, Foulk PB, Klump JV, Weckerly K, Purbospito J, Murdiyarso D, Nam VN. 2016. Sedimentation and belowground carbon accumulation rates in mangrove forests that differ in diversity and land use: a tale of two mangroves. Wetlands ecology and management. 24(2): 245-261. Doi:10.1007/s11273.
Madiama S, Muryani C, Santosa S. 2016. Kajian perubahan luas dan pemanfaatan serta persepsi masyarakat terhadap pelestarian hutan mangrove di kecamatan Teluk Ambon Baguala. Geoeco. 2(2).
Magurran AE. 1988. Diversity indices and species abundance models. In ecological diversity and its measurement. Springer, dordrecht. 7-45.
Motlagh MG, Kafaky SB, Mataji A, Akhavan R, Amraei B. 2020. An introduction to the distribution of carbon stocks in temperate broadleaf forests of Northern Iran. J. For. Sci. 66(2): 70–79. doi: 10.17221/149/2019-jfs.
Mullet Earl Kevin C, Haydn Lacorte Giuseppe, Hamiladan Rea Mae A. 2014 assessment of mangrove species and its relation to soil substrates in Malapatan, Sarangani Province, Philippines. Journal of biodiversity and environmental sciences. 5(4): 100-107.
Natividad. 2015. Vegetation analysis and community structure of mangrove in Alabel and Maasim Sarangani. Journal agricultural and biological science. 10(3): 97-102.
Opuni-Frimpong E, Gabienu E, Adusu D, Opuni-Frimpong NY, Damptey FG. 2021. Plant diversity, conservation significance, and community structure of two protected areas under different governance. Trees, forests and people. 4: 100082. doi:10.1016/j.tfp.2021.100082.
Ouyang X, Lee SY. 2020. Improved estimates on global carbon stock and carbon pools in tidal wetlands. Nature communications. 11(1): 1-7. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-14120-2.
Pielou EC. 1966. The measurement of diversity in different types of biological collections. Journal of theoretical biology. 13: 131-144. doi:10.1016/0022-5193(66)90013-0.
Rao MN, Anguly D, Prasad MHK, Singh G, Purvaja R, Biswal M, Ramesh R. 2021. Interspecific variations in mangrove stem biomass: a potential storehouse of sequestered carbon. Regional studies in marine science. 48: 102044. doi:10.1016/j.rsma.2021.102044.
Rasquinha DN, Mishra DR. 2021. Impact of wood harvesting on mangrove forest structure, composition and biomass dynamics in India. Estuarine, coastal and shelf science. 248: 106974. doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2020.106974.
Rey A, Pegoraro E, Oyonarte C, Were A, Escribano P, Raimundo J. 2011. Impact of land degradation on soil respiration in a steppe (stipa tenacissima l.) Semi-arid ecosystem in the se of Spain. Soil biology and biochemistry. 43(2): 393-403. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2010.11.007.
Rotua PJ. 2013. Kajian vegetasi mangrove di Teluk Ambon dalam dengan menggunakan teknik penginderaan jarak jauh. [Skripsi]. Universitas pattimura.
Rovai AS, Twilley RR, Castañeda-Moya E, Riul P, Cifuentes-Jara M, Manrow-Villalobos M, Horta PA, Simonassi JC, Fonseca AL, Pagliosa PR. Global controls on carbon storage in mangrove soils. Nat. Clim. Chang. 2018. 8:534–538. doi:10.3390/plants10091965.
Sanderman J. 2017. Global mangrove soil carbon: dataset and spatial maps. Harvard dataverse. doi:10.7910/dvn/ocyuit.
Schile LM, Kauffman JB, Crooks S, Fourqurean JW, Glavan J, Megonigal JP. 2017. Limits on carbon sequestration in Arid blue carbon ecosystems. Ecological applications. 27(3): 859-874. doi:/10.1002/eap.1489.
Sharma CM, Mishra AK, Krishan R, Tiwari OP, Rana YS. 2015. Variation in vegetation composition, biomass production, and carbon storage in Ridge top forests of high mountains of Garhwal Himalaya. Journal of sustainable forestry. 35(2): 119–132. doi:10.1080/10549811.2015.111838.
Srivastava PBL, Bal S. 1984. Composition and distribution pattern of natural regeneration after second thinning in matang mangrove reserves, Perak, Malaysia. In proceedings of the asian symposium on mangrove environment- research and management. 761-784.
Suyadi S. 2017. Satu dekade kondisi hutan mangrove di Teluk Ambon, maluku (A decade of mangrove forest condition in Ambon bay, Maluku). Jurnal biologi indonesia. 8(1).
Taju M, Marelign A. 2022. Carbon stock and climate change mitigation potential of Godebe National Park, North West Ethiopia. Proceedings of the International Academy of Ecology and Environmental Sciences. 12(1):17-30.
Turnbull LA, Levine JM, Hector A. 2013. Coexistence, niches and biodiversity effects on ecosystem functioning. Ecology letters. 16: 116-127. doi:10.1111/ele.12056.
Ulqodry TZ, Suganda A, Agussalim A, Aryawati R, Absori A. 2020. Estimasi serapan karbon mangrove melalui proses fotosintesis di Taman Nasional Berbak-Sembilang. Jurnal Kelautan Nasional. 15(2):77-84.
Virgulino-Júnior PC, Gardunho DC, Silva DN, Fernandes ME. 2020. Wood density in mangrove forests on the Brazilian Amazon Coast. Trees. 34(1): 51-60. doi:10.1007/s00468-019-01896-5.
Wang G, Guan D, Xiao L, Peart MR. 2019. Ecosystem carbon storage affected by intertidal locations and climatic factors in three estuarine mangrove forests of South China. Regional environmental change. 19(6): 1701-1712. doi: 10.1007/s10113-019-01515-6.
Zuppinger-Dingley D, Schmid B, Petermann JS, Yadav V, De Deyn GB, Flynn DF. 2014. Selection for niche differentiation in plant communities increases biodiversity effects. Nature. 515(7525): 108-111. doi: 10.1038/nature13869.
Authors
KaimuddinM. I., KusmanaC. and SetiawanY. (2023) “Vegetation structure, biomass, and carbon of Mangrove Forests in Ambon Bay, Maluku, Indonesia”, Jurnal Pengelolaan Sumberdaya Alam dan Lingkungan (Journal of Natural Resources and Environmental Management). Bogor, ID, 13(4), pp. 710-722. doi: 10.29244/jpsl.13.4.710-722.
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