The relationship between air pollutants and COVID-19 cases and its implications for air quality in Jakarta, Indonesia
Abstract
World Health Organization (WHO) has announced that COVID-19 as a global pandemic and public health emergency. Previous studies have revealed that COVID-19 was an infectious disease and it could remain viable in ambient air for hours. Therefore, this study aims to examine the correlation between air pollutants (PM2.5, PM10, CO, SO2, NO2 and O3) and COVID-19 spread in Jakarta, Indonesia. Furthermore, this study also evaluates the impact of large-scale social restriction (LSSR) on air pollution index (API). Result of study found that air pollution index of PM2.5, PM10, CO, SO2 and NO2 decreased by 9.48%, 15.74%, 29.17%, 6.26% and 18.34% during LSSR period. While, for O3 showed an increase by 4.06%. Another result also found significantly positive correlations of SO2, CO and PM2.5 with COVID-19 cases. An exposure to SO2, CO and PM2.5 has driven the area become vulnerable for COVID-19 infection. Our findings indicated that the relationship between air pollutants and COVID-19 spread could provide a new notion for precaution and control method of COVID-19 outbreak.
References
Abdullah S, Mansor AA, Napi NNLM, Mansor, WNW, Ahmed AN, Ismail M, Ramly ZTA. 2020a. Air quality status during 2020 Malaysia Movement Control Order (MCO) due to 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) pandemic. Sci. Total Environ. 729: 1-5.
Abdullah S, Napi NNLM, Ahmed AN, Mansor WNW, Mansor AA, Ismail M, Ramly ZTA. 2020b. Development of Multiple Linear Regression for Particulate Matter (PM10) Forecasting during Episodic Transboundary Haze Event in Malaysia. Atmosphere 11(3): 1-14.
Bashir MF, Bilal BM, Komal B. 2020. Correlation between environmental pollution indicators and COVID-19 pandemic: A brief study in Californian context. Environ. Res. 187: 1-5.
Chen TM, Kuschner WG, Gokhale J, Shofer S. 2007. Outdoor air pollution: nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and carbon monoxide health effects. Am. J. Med. Sci. 333(4): 249-256.
Chen LWA, Chien LC, Li Y, Lin G. 2020. Nonuniform impacts of COVID-19 lockdown on air quality over the United States. Sci. Total Environ. 745: 1-4.
Cole M, Ozgen C, Strobl E. 2020. Air Pollution Exposure and COVID-19. IZA Discussion Paper No. 13367, Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3628242
Fattorini D, Regoli F. 2020. Role of the atmospheric pollution in the Covid-19 outbreak risk in Italy. MedRxiv, 1-15.
Filonchyk M, Hurynovich V. 2020. Validation of MODIS Aerosol Products with AERONET Measurements of Different Land Cover Types in Areas over Eastern Europe and China. J. Geovis. Spatial Anal. 4: 1-11.
Filonchyk M, Hurynovich V, Yan H, Gusev A, Shpilevskaya N. 2020. Impact Assessment of COVID-19 on Variations of SO2, NO2, CO and AOD over East China. Aerosol Air Qual Res. 20: 1530-1540.
Guo XJ, Zhang H, Zeng YP. 2020. Transmissibility of COVID-19 and its association with temperature and humidity. Research Square 1-10.
Huang Y, Yan Q, Zhang C. 2018. Spatial–temporal distribution characteristics of PM 2.5 in China in 2016. J. Geovis. Spatial Anal. 2(2): 12.
Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, Zhang L, Fan G, Xu J, Gu X. 2020. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. The lancet 395: 497-506.
Kanniah KD, Zaman NAFK, Kaskaoutis DG, Latif MT. 2020. COVID-19's impact on the atmospheric environment in the Southeast Asia region. Sci. Total Environ. 736, 1-11.
Li K, Jacob DJ, Liao H, Shen L, Zhang Q, Bates KH. 2019. Anthropogenic drivers of 2013–2017 trends in summer surface ozone in China. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116(2): 422-427.
Li Q, Guan X, Wu P, Wang X, Zhou L, Tong Y, Xing X. 2020. Early transmission dynamics in Wuhan, China, of novel coronavirus–infected pneumonia. N. Engl. J. Med. 382: 1199-1207.
Lia X, Huang J, Huang R, Liu C, Wang L, Zhang T. 2020. Impact of city lockdown on the air quality of COVID-19-hit of Wuhan city. Sci. Total Environ. 742: 1-8.
Ma Y, Zhao Y, Liu J, He X, Wang B, Fu S, Luo B. 2020. Effects of temperature variation and humidity on the death of COVID-19 in Wuhan, China. Sci. Total Environ. 724: 1-7.
Mahato S, Pal S, Ghosh KG. 2020. Effect of lockdown amid COVID-19 pandemic on air quality of the megacity Delhi, India. Sci. Total Environ. 730: 1-23.
Menut L, Bessagnet B, Siour G, Mailler S, Pennel R, Cholakian A. 2020. Impact of lockdown measures to combat Covid-19 on air quality over western Europe. Sci. Total Environ. 741: 1-8.
Ministry of Health Indonesia 2020. Guidelines for prevention, management and control Corona Virus Disease (COVID-19). Ministry of Health Indonesia: Jakarta.
Nakada LYK, Urban RC. 2020. COVID-19 pandemic: Impacts on the air quality during the partial lockdown in São Paulo state, Brazil. Sci. Total Environ. 730: 1-5.
Rendana M. 2020. Impact of the wind conditions on COVID-19 pandemic: A new insight for direction of the spread of the virus. Urban clim. 34: 1-8.
Şahin M. 2020. Impact of weather on COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey. Sci. Total Environ. 728: 1-6.
Seinfeld J. H, Pandis SN. 2016. Atmospheric chemistry and physics: from air pollution to climate change. John Wiley & Sons.
Shereen MA, Khan S, Kazmi A, Bashir N, Siddique R. 2020. COVID-19 infection: origin, transmission, and characteristics of human coronaviruses. J. Adv. Res. 24: 91-98.
Singh V, Singh S, Biswal A, Kesarkar AP, Mor S, Ravindra K. 2020. Diurnal and temporal changes in air pollution during COVID-19 strict lockdown over different regions of India. Environ. Pollut. 266: 1-15.
Sohrabi C, Alsafi Z, O’Neill N, Khan M, Kerwan A, Al-Jabir A. 2020. World Health Organization declares global emergency: a review of the 2019 novel coronavirus (COVID-19). Int. J. Surg. 76: 71-76.
Tobías A, Carnerero C, Reche C, Massagué J, Via, M, Minguillón MC, Querol X. 2020. Changes in air quality during the lockdown in Barcelona (Spain) one month into the SARS-CoV-2 epidemic. Sci. Total Environ. 726: 1-4.
Van Doremalen N, Bushmaker T, Morris DH, Holbrook MG, Gamble A, Williamson BN, Lioyd-Smith JO. 2020. Aerosol and surface stability of SARS-CoV-2 as compared with SARS-CoV-1. N. Engl. J. Med. 382: 1564-1567.
Verma JP. 2012. Data analysis in management with SPSS software. Springer Science & Business Media.
World Health Organization 2020. Considerations for Quarantine of Individuals in the Context of Containment for Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19): Interim Guidance. WHO: Geneva.
Xie J, Teng J, Fan Y, Xie R, Shen A. 2019. The short-term effects of air pollutants on hospitalizations for respiratory disease in Hefei, China. Int. J. Biometeorol. 63: 315-326.
Xu H, Yan C, Fu Q, Xiao K, Yu Y, Han D, Cheng J. 2020. Possible environmental effects on the spread of COVID-19 in China. Sci. Total Environ. 731: 1-7.
Yao Y, Tian Y, Zhou J, Ma X, Yang M, Wang S. 2020. Epidemiological characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 infections in Shaanxi, China by 8 February 2020. Eur. Respir. J. 55(4): 1-3.
Yongjian Z, Jingu X, Fengming H, Liqing C. 2020. Association between short-term exposure to air pollution and COVID-19 infection: Evidence from China. Sci. Total Environ. 727: 1-7.
Zoran MA, Savastru RS, Savastru DM, Tautan MN. 2020. Assessing the relationship between surface levels of PM2. 5 and PM10 particulate matter impact on COVID-19 in Milan, Italy. Sci. Total Environ. 738: 1-12.
Abdullah S, Napi NNLM, Ahmed AN, Mansor WNW, Mansor AA, Ismail M, Ramly ZTA. 2020b. Development of Multiple Linear Regression for Particulate Matter (PM10) Forecasting during Episodic Transboundary Haze Event in Malaysia. Atmosphere 11(3): 1-14.
Bashir MF, Bilal BM, Komal B. 2020. Correlation between environmental pollution indicators and COVID-19 pandemic: A brief study in Californian context. Environ. Res. 187: 1-5.
Chen TM, Kuschner WG, Gokhale J, Shofer S. 2007. Outdoor air pollution: nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and carbon monoxide health effects. Am. J. Med. Sci. 333(4): 249-256.
Chen LWA, Chien LC, Li Y, Lin G. 2020. Nonuniform impacts of COVID-19 lockdown on air quality over the United States. Sci. Total Environ. 745: 1-4.
Cole M, Ozgen C, Strobl E. 2020. Air Pollution Exposure and COVID-19. IZA Discussion Paper No. 13367, Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3628242
Fattorini D, Regoli F. 2020. Role of the atmospheric pollution in the Covid-19 outbreak risk in Italy. MedRxiv, 1-15.
Filonchyk M, Hurynovich V. 2020. Validation of MODIS Aerosol Products with AERONET Measurements of Different Land Cover Types in Areas over Eastern Europe and China. J. Geovis. Spatial Anal. 4: 1-11.
Filonchyk M, Hurynovich V, Yan H, Gusev A, Shpilevskaya N. 2020. Impact Assessment of COVID-19 on Variations of SO2, NO2, CO and AOD over East China. Aerosol Air Qual Res. 20: 1530-1540.
Guo XJ, Zhang H, Zeng YP. 2020. Transmissibility of COVID-19 and its association with temperature and humidity. Research Square 1-10.
Huang Y, Yan Q, Zhang C. 2018. Spatial–temporal distribution characteristics of PM 2.5 in China in 2016. J. Geovis. Spatial Anal. 2(2): 12.
Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, Zhang L, Fan G, Xu J, Gu X. 2020. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. The lancet 395: 497-506.
Kanniah KD, Zaman NAFK, Kaskaoutis DG, Latif MT. 2020. COVID-19's impact on the atmospheric environment in the Southeast Asia region. Sci. Total Environ. 736, 1-11.
Li K, Jacob DJ, Liao H, Shen L, Zhang Q, Bates KH. 2019. Anthropogenic drivers of 2013–2017 trends in summer surface ozone in China. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116(2): 422-427.
Li Q, Guan X, Wu P, Wang X, Zhou L, Tong Y, Xing X. 2020. Early transmission dynamics in Wuhan, China, of novel coronavirus–infected pneumonia. N. Engl. J. Med. 382: 1199-1207.
Lia X, Huang J, Huang R, Liu C, Wang L, Zhang T. 2020. Impact of city lockdown on the air quality of COVID-19-hit of Wuhan city. Sci. Total Environ. 742: 1-8.
Ma Y, Zhao Y, Liu J, He X, Wang B, Fu S, Luo B. 2020. Effects of temperature variation and humidity on the death of COVID-19 in Wuhan, China. Sci. Total Environ. 724: 1-7.
Mahato S, Pal S, Ghosh KG. 2020. Effect of lockdown amid COVID-19 pandemic on air quality of the megacity Delhi, India. Sci. Total Environ. 730: 1-23.
Menut L, Bessagnet B, Siour G, Mailler S, Pennel R, Cholakian A. 2020. Impact of lockdown measures to combat Covid-19 on air quality over western Europe. Sci. Total Environ. 741: 1-8.
Ministry of Health Indonesia 2020. Guidelines for prevention, management and control Corona Virus Disease (COVID-19). Ministry of Health Indonesia: Jakarta.
Nakada LYK, Urban RC. 2020. COVID-19 pandemic: Impacts on the air quality during the partial lockdown in São Paulo state, Brazil. Sci. Total Environ. 730: 1-5.
Rendana M. 2020. Impact of the wind conditions on COVID-19 pandemic: A new insight for direction of the spread of the virus. Urban clim. 34: 1-8.
Şahin M. 2020. Impact of weather on COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey. Sci. Total Environ. 728: 1-6.
Seinfeld J. H, Pandis SN. 2016. Atmospheric chemistry and physics: from air pollution to climate change. John Wiley & Sons.
Shereen MA, Khan S, Kazmi A, Bashir N, Siddique R. 2020. COVID-19 infection: origin, transmission, and characteristics of human coronaviruses. J. Adv. Res. 24: 91-98.
Singh V, Singh S, Biswal A, Kesarkar AP, Mor S, Ravindra K. 2020. Diurnal and temporal changes in air pollution during COVID-19 strict lockdown over different regions of India. Environ. Pollut. 266: 1-15.
Sohrabi C, Alsafi Z, O’Neill N, Khan M, Kerwan A, Al-Jabir A. 2020. World Health Organization declares global emergency: a review of the 2019 novel coronavirus (COVID-19). Int. J. Surg. 76: 71-76.
Tobías A, Carnerero C, Reche C, Massagué J, Via, M, Minguillón MC, Querol X. 2020. Changes in air quality during the lockdown in Barcelona (Spain) one month into the SARS-CoV-2 epidemic. Sci. Total Environ. 726: 1-4.
Van Doremalen N, Bushmaker T, Morris DH, Holbrook MG, Gamble A, Williamson BN, Lioyd-Smith JO. 2020. Aerosol and surface stability of SARS-CoV-2 as compared with SARS-CoV-1. N. Engl. J. Med. 382: 1564-1567.
Verma JP. 2012. Data analysis in management with SPSS software. Springer Science & Business Media.
World Health Organization 2020. Considerations for Quarantine of Individuals in the Context of Containment for Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19): Interim Guidance. WHO: Geneva.
Xie J, Teng J, Fan Y, Xie R, Shen A. 2019. The short-term effects of air pollutants on hospitalizations for respiratory disease in Hefei, China. Int. J. Biometeorol. 63: 315-326.
Xu H, Yan C, Fu Q, Xiao K, Yu Y, Han D, Cheng J. 2020. Possible environmental effects on the spread of COVID-19 in China. Sci. Total Environ. 731: 1-7.
Yao Y, Tian Y, Zhou J, Ma X, Yang M, Wang S. 2020. Epidemiological characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 infections in Shaanxi, China by 8 February 2020. Eur. Respir. J. 55(4): 1-3.
Yongjian Z, Jingu X, Fengming H, Liqing C. 2020. Association between short-term exposure to air pollution and COVID-19 infection: Evidence from China. Sci. Total Environ. 727: 1-7.
Zoran MA, Savastru RS, Savastru DM, Tautan MN. 2020. Assessing the relationship between surface levels of PM2. 5 and PM10 particulate matter impact on COVID-19 in Milan, Italy. Sci. Total Environ. 738: 1-12.
Authors
RendanaM. and KomariahL. N. (2021) “The relationship between air pollutants and COVID-19 cases and its implications for air quality in Jakarta, Indonesia”, Jurnal Pengelolaan Sumberdaya Alam dan Lingkungan (Journal of Natural Resources and Environmental Management). Bogor, ID, 11(1), pp. 93-100. doi: 10.29244/jpsl.11.1.93-100.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
