The study was conducted from January to August 2024 in four regions of northern and northeastern Côte d’Ivoire (Figure 1). These include three regions from the Savanes district (Poro, Tchologo, and Bagoué) in the north and one region from the Zanzan district (Bounkani) in the northeast. These northern and northeastern regions represent the traditional cattle-breeding areas of Côte d’Ivoire, housing 80% of the country’s total cattle herd (Kouamé et al., 2024). They are also convergence areas for transhumant herds from neighboring northern countries, which are now showing a tendency toward sedentarization (Soro, 2021).

The northern region is a savanna area characterized by a Sudanian-Guinean climate, with a wet season from June to September and a dry season extending from November to early March. Rainfall varies between 900 and 1,200 mm, reaching its peak between July and August. Agriculture is the main economic activity in this region, with cotton, cashew, and mango being the dominant cash crops. In addition to these cash crops, rice, maize, yam, groundnut, and market gardening are cultivated for local consumption. Livestock farming, particularly cattle rearing, is also a major source of income for the local population (Kouamé et al., 2024).

Study design, Distribution of Surveyed Farms, and data collection. The study was conducted in two phases and involved direct engagement with livestock farmers or farm owners. The first phase, known as the pre-survey, aimed to identify target farms, define study parameters, and develop a semi-structured questionnaire. This questionnaire focused on key aspects such as the socio-economic profile of the farmer, types of animals raised, feeding practices, livestock health monitoring, and the management of natural resources used for animal husbandry. This preliminary stage was crucial for refining and validating the data collection tool. It also helped to overcome language barriers by involving interpreters to ensure that information provided by respondents, mainly Malinké speakers, with a few Peulh speakers, was accurately understood and recorded.

In the second phase, the finalized questionnaire was administered to the selected farms. The farms were chosen based on three main criteria: ease of access, the farmers’ willingness to share information, and the size of the cattle herd. The survey covered seven departments across four regions in northern Côte d’Ivoire. These regions were selected due to their dynamic agropastoral activities, and the specific localities were identified with the support of the regional or departmental offices of the Ministry of Animal and Fisheries Resources (MIRAH). In the northeast, the Bounkani region included the departments of Bouna and Téhini. In the north, the Bagoué region included Kouto and Boundiali, while the Poro region comprised Korhogo and Dikodougou. Lastly, the Ferkessédougou department in the Tchologo region was also surveyed.

In total, 53 farms were surveyed, distributed as follows: 17 in the Bounkani region, 14 in Bagoué, 14 in Poro, and 8 in the Ferkessédougou department. This geographic and demographic spread allowed the study to capture a diverse range of farming practices and conditions across major livestock-producing zones in Côte d’Ivoire.

Study’s limitation. Despite its valuable contributions, this study presents several limitations that should be acknowledged. First, the relatively small sample size (53 farms) may limit the generalizability of the findings to all livestock farming systems in Côte d’Ivoire, particularly in regions outside the northern and northeastern zones. Second, the study primarily relied on self-reported data, which may be subject to recall bias or social desirability bias, especially concerning herd sizes, management practices, and the use of veterinary inputs. Third, while interpreters were used to mitigate language barriers, subtle nuances in local dialects or cultural contexts may have affected the accuracy of data interpretation. Additionally, the cross-sectional nature of the study does not capture seasonal variations or changes over time in livestock management practices and herd dynamics. Finally, the analysis focused mainly on cattle farming, which may overlook important variations within other types of livestock production systems, such as small ruminants or poultry, which also play a critical role in rural livelihoods.

Statistical analysis. The collected data, structured in a question-and-answer format, were first defined and coded into explanatory variables with different categories before being subjected to statistical analysis. To describe the socio-economic structure and the representativeness of the various studied parameters, the data underwent basic descriptive analysis (frequency, categories, mean, and standard deviation). This analysis helped characterize the socio-economic profile of the respondents and the characteristics of the studied farms.

To identify the most influential parameters in differentiating the surveyed farms, the data were analyzed using Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA). Based on the most discriminating variables, livestock farming types were then classified using the hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) method. All these analyses were performed using XLSTAT software, version 2019.

Socio-economic characteristics and livestock management practices of cattle farmers in northern Côte d’Ivoire. The socio-economic profile of cattle farmers surveyed in northern Côte d’Ivoire reveals that the sector is overwhelmingly dominated by married men (100%), most of whom (69.81%) are between 40 and 60 years old. A smaller proportion (16.98%) was under the age of 40. The majority of farmers (64.15%) belong to the Peulh ethnic group, originating mainly from neighboring countries such as Burkina Faso (47.17%) and Mali (18.87%). However, a notable number of Ivorian farmers also engage in cattle farming, primarily among the Sénoufo (16.98%) and Malinké (13.21%) ethnic groups (Table 1).

Regarding education levels, 44.52% of the farmers had no formal schooling. Among those who received an education, 14.38% completed primary school, 5.56% reached the secondary level, and only 2.78% had pursued higher education. Additionally, 36.92% of the participants reported receiving instruction in Quranic schools. Interestingly, only 13.21% of the surveyed farmers considered livestock farming as their primary occupation. The majority (86.79%) practiced it as a secondary activity, with 52.83% also involved in crop farming, 28.3% in trade, and 5.66% in various other professions (Table 1).

A large proportion of farmers (86.79%) reared multiple animal species in addition to cattle. Specifically, 73.59% raised both small ruminants and poultry, 9.43% raised only small ruminants, and 3.77% raised only poultry. This diversification likely supports household food security and income stability. Farm ownership was mostly individual-based, with 92.89% of the cattle farmers being the legal owners of their farms. Farms were acquired primarily through inheritance (37.42%), purchase (30.88%), or donation (24.76%). Among the owners, 45.91% inherited their herds, while 36.76% and 10.21% acquired theirs through purchase and donation, respectively (Figure 2).

In terms of experience, the number of years in cattle farming ranged from 2 to 40 years, with an average of 23.32 ± 10.04 years. In the Savanes district, experience averaged 21.42 ± 10.64 years (range: 2–39 years), whereas in the Zanzan district, it averaged 27.35 ± 7.36 years (range: 17–40 years). Herd sizes varied as well: the average number of cattle per farm was 43.30 ± 20.80. In the Savanes district, herd sizes ranged from 11 to 83 heads (average: 41.31 ± 19.29), while in the Zanzan district, they ranged from 14 to 90 heads (average: 47.53 ± 23.75).

The study identified five main cattle types across the farms: the taurine breeds (N’Dama and Baoulé), the Zebu, and two types of crossbreeds. These include the Méré (a local hybrid of N’Dama, Baoulé, and Zebu) and exotic hybrids (crosses between local and improved exotic breeds). Among these, Méré (98.11%) and Zebu (88.68%) were the most commonly raised, found on nearly all farms. Taurine breeds were less frequent, with the Baoulé found exclusively in the Zanzan district, particularly in Bouna and Téhini (Table 2). Breeding practices were dominated by natural mating, used on 90.57% of the farms. Zebu and Méré males were preferred for this method. Artificial insemination was rare (9.43%) and mainly involved the use of semen from improved exotic breeds (Table 3).

Among all the farms surveyed, 69.81% rely on family labor, while 30.19% hire a shepherd-employee to manage their herds (Table 4). Semi-transhumance is the primary method of herd management. Natural pasture is the main source of feed for all farms. In addition to this natural food source, some farmers (60.04%) reported providing supplementary feed to their animals during the lean season (dry season).

This supplementation consists partly of agro-industrial by-products (cottonseed cake, maize bran, and rice bran) in 49.06% of cases, and partly of crop residues for 16.98% of respondents. All farmers stated that they provide mineral supplements, usually in salt licks or kitchen salt (Table 4). Water sources for livestock include dams/ponds (67.92%), rivers/streams (20.75%), and wells/boreholes (11.32%).

Health management, product valorization, and natural resource use among cattle farmers in northern Côte d’Ivoire. The study revealed that all surveyed cattle farms received technical support from the government, primarily through vaccination campaigns and occasional interventions by animal health agents during epidemics. Health management practices varied across farms and could be grouped into two main categories. A majority of farmers (58.49%) practiced self-medication, using readily available synthetic drugs alongside traditional knowledge to treat sick animals, often without consulting a veterinarian or animal health professional. In contrast, 41.51% of farmers reported receiving technical assistance from veterinarians or certified animal health agents. This self-medication trend was more prevalent in the Savanes district (63.89%) compared to the Zanzan district (47.06%) (Table 5).

Several recurring animal diseases were identified, including trypanosomiasis (96.23%), contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) (84.90%), and foot-and-mouth disease (81.13%). To manage these diseases, farmers implemented preventive measures such as vaccinations against CBPP and brucellosis, as well as both internal and external deworming. Internal deworming was carried out using tablets or injectable treatments like ivermectin and oxytetracycline, while external deworming targeted ectoparasites, particularly ticks, through the application of synthetic acaricides such as alphacypermethrin and amitraz (Table 5).

Livestock products played a critical role in meeting the economic, nutritional, and cultural needs of the farming communities. Animals were mainly sold live and served as a key source of additional income. However, the market value of these animals varied according to genetic type. Across all surveyed localities, the Méré crossbreed was the most frequently sold (98.11%), followed by Zebu (75.47%). Taurine breeds and exotic crossbreeds were sold less often, representing only 13.21% and 9.43% of sales, respectively (Table 6). Milk production also contributed significantly to household livelihoods, as it was both consumed and sold by farm managers. Beyond their economic importance, livestock and their products held ceremonial and cultural significance, especially during traditional events.

The study also highlighted critical issues related to access and management of natural resources, particularly water and grazing land. Across all localities, farmers expressed a lack of awareness about the official regulations governing the use of these resources. A large majority (96.22%) reported difficulties accessing water sources and grazing areas. These resources, especially dam water and communal pastures, were shared by farmers and livestock herders, often leading to competition and disputes. Reported conflicts were more frequent in the Zanzan district (41.17%) than in the Savanes district (30.56%) (Table 7). Most tensions arose from interactions between livestock keepers and crop farmers, particularly over the overlapping use of land and water.

Discriminant farm variables. The multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) reveals that the first two factorial dimensions explain 63.27% of the total variability among livestock farms (Figure 3). The first axis contributes 50.09% to this variability and is influenced by variables such as ethnicity (17.14), the farmer’s secondary activity (12.30), the cattle breeds raised (15.06), the type of labor used (16.21), and the provision of supplementary feed (11.12). The second axis, which accounts for 13.18% of the variability, is mainly determined by the farmer’s level of education (27.89), the mode of livestock acquisition (28.96), and the farm’s years of experience (21.30). The contributions of each variable to the factorial plane are recorded in Table 8.

Description of different typologies of farms. The hierarchical ascending classification, based on the first two factorial axes of the MCA, identified three different types of livestock farming (Figure 4).

Type 1 farms. These farms represented 11 farms, or 21% of the surveyed farms. They belong to Ivorian nationals and are primarily acquired through purchase. They are mostly owned by traders, with some retirees and informal sector workers who entrust the management of their farms to an employee. The owners have received formal education (are schooled) and consider livestock farming a secondary activity. These farms have been in existence for over 20 years. The herd size in these farms ranges from 11 to 63 cattle, with an average of 29 ± 19 animals. The livestock mainly consists of Méré and Zebu cattle. In addition to these breeds, exotic crossbreeds and other animal species such as sheep, goats, and poultry are also found on these farms.

The animals often receive supplementary feed in the form of agro-industrial by-products (maize cake, cotton seeds, and rice bran). Natural mating is the most common breeding method in these farms. However, some farmers have experimented with artificial insemination.

Type 2 farms. These farms represented 18 farms, or 34% of the surveyed farms. The second type includes farms managed by Peulh herders. Most of these herders were educated in Koranic schools. The herd size in these farms ranged from 17 to 83 cattle (50 ± 20 cattle) and had an average of 18 years of experience. Like Type 1 farms, the livestock in these farms consisted of Méré and Zebu cattle, and the breeding method is natural mating. These farms are family-operated. The manager’s family consumes the milk, which constitutes part of the Peulh herder’s salary.

Type 3 farms. These farms represented 24 farms, or 45% of the farms surveyed. More than half (63%) of the herders in this group are Peulh herders who have become sedentary, while the others are indigenous people. All of them are non-literate agro-pastoralists. Most (67%) inherited their farms. These are the oldest farms, with an average age of 27 years. The herd size in these farms ranged from 14 to 90 cattle, consisting of Méré, Zebu, a few exotic crossbreeds, and taurine cattle. Family labor is used for both managing the livestock and performing agricultural tasks. In these farms, cattle breeding is combined with the breeding of sheep, goats, and poultry. Natural mating is the primary method of reproduction. However, 8% of the herders in this group also use artificial insemination.