Integrated Pollution Index and Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment of 2021–2023 Surface Water Quality in The Kapuas River, Sanggau Regency, Indonesia
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Submitted
August 4, 2025
Accepted
February 25, 2026
Published
March 31, 2026
Keywords:
-
Pollution Index, Water Quality, Heavy Metals
Abstract
The Kapuas River is the main source of water for the community in Sanggau Regency, West Kalimantan; however, increasing anthropogenic pressure has raised concerns about water quality and public health risks. This study integrated the Exceedance Ratio (ER), Pollution Index (PI), and Quantitative Microbiological Risk Assessment (QMRA) to evaluate surface water quality from 2021
to 2023 at four monitoring locations. Based on Class I standards, parameters that did not meet standards included iron (Fe) (ER = 4.00; 82% exceeded the limit), COD (ER = 2.37; 91%), BOD (ER = 2.10; 81%), and fecal coliforms (ER = 2.50; 82%). The PI values ranged from 2.16 to 5.07, classifying the rivers as lightly to moderately polluted, with a significant increase in 2023 (mean PI = 3.75 ± 0.82; p = 0.015). Although the Class II standards were nearly met, the QMRA indicated that the annual infection risk exceeded the WHO threshold (10⁻⁴ per person per year) at all locations. The exceedance factor (EF) in 2021–2022 ranged from 2.9–4.5 (adults) and 7.7–12 (children), increasing sharply in 2023 to 120 (adults) and 310 (children) at the water quality monitoring sites. These findings reveal a critical gap between regulation and health, highlighting the urgent need to strengthen sanitation management and health-based monitoring to support sustainable river governance and achieve Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6.
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References
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30. Wahyudi, R.; Fauzi, A.M.; Budiarti, S.; Sintawardani, N. Water Quality Assessment and Determination of Water Quality Status in Kapuas River for Sustainable Water Resources, Sanggau Regency, West Kalimantan. In Proceedings of the IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science; Institute of Physics, 2024; Vol. 1359.
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33. Pal, R.; Matta, G.; Muruganandam, M.; Singhal, V.; Kaushal, R.; Rashmi, I.; Singh, R.; Sharma, G.K.; Madhu, M. Impact of Stone Mining on Surface Water Quality. In Ecological Impacts of Stone Mining; Springer Nature Singapore: Singapore, 2024; pp. 151–165.
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36. Kusin, F.M.; Rahman, M.S.A.; Madzin, Z.; Jusop, S.; Mohamat-Yusuff, F.; Ariffin, M.; Mohd Syakirin Md, Z. The Occurrence and Potential Ecological Risk Assessment of Bauxite Mine-Impacted Water and Sediments in Kuantan, Pahang,Malaysia. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 2017, 24, 1306–1321, doi:10.1007/s11356-016-7814-7.
37. Damiani, S.; Leite Montalvão, M.T.; de Alcântara Mendes, R.; Gomes da Costa, A.C.; Sousa Passos, C.J. Water and Sediment Pesticide Contamination on Indigenous Lands Surrounded by Oil Palm Plantations in the Brazilian Amazon. Heliyon 2023, 9, doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19920.
38. Waddington, H.S.; Masset, E.; Bick, S.; Cairncross, S. Impact on Childhood Mortality of Interventions to Improve Drinking Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) to Households: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PLoS Med 2023, 20, doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1004215.
39. Alrowais, R.; Bashir, M.T.; Khan, A.A.; Bashir, M.; Abbas, I.; Abdel Daiem, M.M. Adsorption and Kinetics Modelling for Chromium (Cr6+) Uptake from Contaminated Water by Quaternized Date Palm Waste. Water (Switzerland) 2024, 16, doi:10.3390/w16020294.
40. Talat, U.; Ravenscroft, L.; Vlaev, I. Development of a Behaviour Change Intervention to Promote Sanitation and Latrine Use in Rural India. BMC Public Health 2023, 23, 2176, doi:10.1186/s12889-023-17061-0.
41. Rajendrakumar, S.; Mavhaire, D.; Shimly, S.; Rahut, D.B.; Tharanidevi, N.; Ramachandran, V.S.; Timilsina, R.R. Drivers and Barriers towards Achieving SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation for All - an Indian Perspective. World Development Sustainability 2025, 7, 100228, doi:10.1016/j.wds.2025.100228.
42. Routray, P.; Schmidt, W.-P.; Boisson, S.; Clasen, T.; Jenkins, M.W. Socio-Cultural and Behavioural Factors Constraining Latrine Adoption in Rural Coastal Odisha: An Exploratory Qualitative Study. BMC Public Health 2015, 15, 880, doi:10.1186/s12889-015-2206-3.
43. De Buck, E.; Van Remoortel, H.; Hannes, K.; Govender, T.; Naidoo, S.; Avau, B.; Veegaete, A. Vande; Musekiwa, A.; Lutje, V.; Cargo, M.; et al. Approaches to Promote Handwashing and Sanitation Behaviour Change in Low‐ and Middle‐income Countries: A Mixed Method Systematic Review. Campbell Systematic Reviews 2017, 13, 1–447, doi:10.4073/csr.2017.7.
44. Chong, J.; Abeysuriya, K.; Hidayat, L.; Sulistio, H.; Willetts, J. Strengthening Local Governance Arrangements for Sanitation: Case Studies of Small Cities in Indonesia. Aquat Procedia 2016, 6, 64–73, doi:10.1016/j.aqpro.2016.06.008.
2. Leonald, L.; Rowland, D. Drivers and Effects of Agrarian Change in Kapuas Hulu Regency, West Kalimantan, Indonesia; 2016;
3. Tyagi, S.; Sharma, B.; Singh, P.; Dobhal, R. Water Quality Assessment in Terms of Water Quality Index. American Journal of Water Resources 2020, 1, 34–38, doi:10.12691/ajwr-1-3-3.
4. Minister of Health of the Republic of Indonesia Regulation of the Minister of Health of the Republic of Indonesia Number 02 of 2023 Concerning the Implementation of Government Regulation Number 66 of 2014 Concerning Environmental Health.; 2023;
5. Regency Government of Sanggau. Regent Regulation of Sanggau Number 138 of 2023 Concerning the Determination of Slum Housing and Settlement Areas in Sanggau Regency; Regency Government of Sanggau., 2023;
6. Regency Government of Sanggau Regent Regulation of Sanggau Number 22 of 2024 Concerning the District Sanitation Strategy of Sanggau Regency for 2025–2029; 2024;
7. Effendi, H. River Water Quality Preliminary Rapid Assessment Using Pollution Index. Procedia Environ Sci 2016, 33, 562–567, doi:10.1016/j.proenv.2016.03.108.
8. Mokarram, M.; Saber, A.; Sheykhi, V. Effects of Heavy Metal Contamination on River Water Quality Due to Release of Industrial Effluents. J Clean Prod 2020, 277, doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123380.
9. Wang, R.; Balkanski, Y.; Boucher, O.; Bopp, L.; Chappell, A.; Ciais, P.; Hauglustaine, D.; Peñuelas, J.; Tao, S. Sources, Transport and Deposition of Iron in the Global Atmosphere. Atmos Chem Phys 2015, 15, 6247–6270, doi:10.5194/acp-15-6247-2015.
10. Otsuka, Y.; Agestika, L.; Widyarani; Sintawardani, N.; Yamauchi, T. Risk Factors for Undernutrition and Diarrhea Prevalence in an Urban Slum in Indonesia: Focus on Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2019, 100, 727–732, doi:10.4269/ajtmh.18-0063.
11. Gizaw, Z.; Biks, G.A.; Yitayal, M.; Alemayehu, G.A.; Alemu, K.; Awoke, T.; Tsegaye, A.T.; Tariku, A.; Derso, T.; Abebe, S.M.; et al. Sanitation Predictors of Childhood Morbidities in Ethiopia: Evidence from Dabat Health and Demographic Surveillance System. Environ Health Prev Med 2019, 24, doi:10.1186/s12199-019-0801-0.
12. Mapingure, M.; Makota, R.B.; Chingombe, I.; Moyo, E.; Dzinamarira, T.; Moyo, B.; Mpofu, A.; Musuka, G. Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene–Specific Risk Factors of Recent Diarrheal Episodes in Children Aged under 5 Years: Analysis of Secondary Data from the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS 2019). IJID Regions 2024, 12, doi:10.1016/j.ijregi.2024.100417.
13. Georgaki, M.N.; Charalambous, M.; Kazakis, N.; Talias, M.A.; Georgakis, C.; Papamitsou, T.; Mytiglaki, C. Chromium in Water and Carcinogenic Human Health Risk. Environments - MDPI 2023, 10.
14. Junardi, J.; Riyandi, R. Assessment of Water Quality Status of the Kapuas Kecil River in West Kalimantan Using Benthic Biota. Jurnal Ilmu Lingkungan 2023, 22, 184–192, doi:10.14710/jil.22.1.184-192.
15. Ainayah Alfatihah; Latuconsina, H.; Hamdani Dwi Prasetyo Water Quality Analysis Based on Physical and Chemical Parameters in the Patrean River, Sumenep Regency. Journal of Aquatic and Fisheries Sciences 2022, 1, 76–84, doi:10.32734/jafs.v1i2.9174.
16. Yanti D, K.; Fitrianingsih, Y.; Sazati, O. Water Quality Analysis and Pollutant Load Capacity. Teknologi Lingkungan Basah 2022, 10, 22–31.
17. Silaen, L.S.; Retno Dewi Sartika Manik, R.; Handoco, E.; Simanjuntak, H. Analysis of Water Quality in the Asahan River in Asahan Mati Village, Tanjung Balai Subdistrict, Asahan Regency. Jurnal Perikanan Unram 2024, 13, 728–735, doi:10.29303/jp.v13i3.607.
18. Pohan, D.A.S.; Budiyono, B.; Syafrudin, S. Analysis of River Water Quality to Determine Its Use from an Environmental Perspective. Jurnal Ilmu Lingkungan 2017, 14, 63, doi:10.14710/jil.14.2.63-71.
19. Koniyo, Y. Analysis of Water Quality at Freshwater Fish Farming Sites in Suawa Tengah Subdistrict. Jurnal Technopreneur (JTech) 2020, 8, 52–58, doi:10.30869/jtech.v8i1.527.
20. Minister of Health of the Republic of Indonesia Regulation of the Minister of Health of the Republic of Indonesia Number 2 of 2023 Concerning Implementation Regulations of Government Regulation Number 66 of 2014 Concerning Environmental Health; 2023;
21. National Standardisation Agency Procedures for Sampling in the Context of Water Quality Monitoring in a River Basin (SNI 03-7016-2004) 2004.
22. Adiyaksa, I.P.; Savichev, O.G. Determination of Pollutant Index (PI) for Assessing the Quality of Groundwater in the Area of Sidoarjo Mud (LUSI) Sidoarjo, East Java, Indonesia. Jurnal Sumberdaya Alam dan Lingkungan 2023, 10, 49–57, doi:10.21776/ub.jsal.2023.010.02.1.
23. Chidiac, S.; El Najjar, P.; Ouaini, N.; El Rayess, Y.; El Azzi, D. A Comprehensive Review of Water Quality Indices (WQIs): History, Models, Attempts and Perspectives. Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol 2023, 22, 349–395.
24. Kieu, L.D.; Quoc, P.N. Spatial and Temporal Analysis of Surface Water Pollution Indices Using Statistical Methods. Civil Engineering Journal (Iran) 2024, 10, 1828–1841, doi:10.28991/CEJ-2024-010-06-07.
25. Anh, N.T.; Can, L.D.; Nhan, N.T.; Schmalz, B.; Luu, T. Le Influences of Key Factors on River Water Quality in Urban and Rural Areas: A Review. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 2023, 8, doi:10.1016/j.cscee.2023.100424.
26. Camara, M.; Jamil, N.R.; Abdullah, A.F. Bin Impact of Land Uses on Water Quality in Malaysia: A Review. Ecol Process 2019, 8.
27. Lintern, A.; Webb, J.A.; Ryu, D.; Liu, S.; Bende-Michl, U.; Waters, D.; Leahy, P.; Wilson, P.; Western, A.W. Key Factors Influencing Differences in Stream Water Quality across Space. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water 2018, 5, doi:10.1002/WAT2.1260.
28. Suriadikusumah, A.; Mulyani, O.; Sudirja, R.; Sofyan, E.T.; Maulana, M.H.R.; Mulyono, A. Analysis of the Water Quality at Cipeusing River, Indonesia Using the Pollution Index Method. Acta Ecologica Sinica 2021, 41, 177–182, doi:10.1016/J.CHNAES.2020.08.001.
29. Pratiwi, D.; Sumiarsa, D.; Oktavia, D.; Sunardi, S. Water Quality Influences Self-Purification in the Cihawuk and Majalaya Segments Upstream of the Citarum River, West Java, Indonesia. Water (Switzerland) 2023, 15, doi:10.3390/w15162998.
30. Wahyudi, R.; Fauzi, A.M.; Budiarti, S.; Sintawardani, N. Water Quality Assessment and Determination of Water Quality Status in Kapuas River for Sustainable Water Resources, Sanggau Regency, West Kalimantan. In Proceedings of the IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science; Institute of Physics, 2024; Vol. 1359.
31. Marselina, M.; Rahmi, N.A.; Nurhayati, S.A. The Water Quality of the Upper Citarum: Applying the Overall Index of Pollution, Said-WQI, and Pollution Index Methods. Heliyon 2025, 11, e41690, doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2025.e41690.
32. Istomi, A.R.; Suharso; Buhani; Tugiyono; Satria, H.; Artika, E.; Zulaicha, A.S. Study of Water Pollution Parameters in the Dry and Rainy Seasons on the Pollution Index of the Mesuji River, Lampung, Indonesia. Results Chem 2025, 13, 101906, doi:10.1016/j.rechem.2024.101906.
33. Pal, R.; Matta, G.; Muruganandam, M.; Singhal, V.; Kaushal, R.; Rashmi, I.; Singh, R.; Sharma, G.K.; Madhu, M. Impact of Stone Mining on Surface Water Quality. In Ecological Impacts of Stone Mining; Springer Nature Singapore: Singapore, 2024; pp. 151–165.
34. Fashola, M.O.; Ngole-Jeme, V.M.; Babalola, O.O. Heavy Metal Pollution from Gold Mines: Environmental Effects and Bacterial Strategies for Resistance. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2016, 13, doi:10.3390/ijerph13111047.
35. Ayiwouo, M.N.; Yamgouot, F.N.; Ngueyep Mambou, L.L.; Kingni, S.T.; Ngounouno, I. Impact of Gold Mining on the Water Quality of the Lom River, Gankombol, Cameroon. Heliyon 2022, 8, doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e12452.
36. Kusin, F.M.; Rahman, M.S.A.; Madzin, Z.; Jusop, S.; Mohamat-Yusuff, F.; Ariffin, M.; Mohd Syakirin Md, Z. The Occurrence and Potential Ecological Risk Assessment of Bauxite Mine-Impacted Water and Sediments in Kuantan, Pahang,Malaysia. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 2017, 24, 1306–1321, doi:10.1007/s11356-016-7814-7.
37. Damiani, S.; Leite Montalvão, M.T.; de Alcântara Mendes, R.; Gomes da Costa, A.C.; Sousa Passos, C.J. Water and Sediment Pesticide Contamination on Indigenous Lands Surrounded by Oil Palm Plantations in the Brazilian Amazon. Heliyon 2023, 9, doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19920.
38. Waddington, H.S.; Masset, E.; Bick, S.; Cairncross, S. Impact on Childhood Mortality of Interventions to Improve Drinking Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) to Households: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. PLoS Med 2023, 20, doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1004215.
39. Alrowais, R.; Bashir, M.T.; Khan, A.A.; Bashir, M.; Abbas, I.; Abdel Daiem, M.M. Adsorption and Kinetics Modelling for Chromium (Cr6+) Uptake from Contaminated Water by Quaternized Date Palm Waste. Water (Switzerland) 2024, 16, doi:10.3390/w16020294.
40. Talat, U.; Ravenscroft, L.; Vlaev, I. Development of a Behaviour Change Intervention to Promote Sanitation and Latrine Use in Rural India. BMC Public Health 2023, 23, 2176, doi:10.1186/s12889-023-17061-0.
41. Rajendrakumar, S.; Mavhaire, D.; Shimly, S.; Rahut, D.B.; Tharanidevi, N.; Ramachandran, V.S.; Timilsina, R.R. Drivers and Barriers towards Achieving SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation for All - an Indian Perspective. World Development Sustainability 2025, 7, 100228, doi:10.1016/j.wds.2025.100228.
42. Routray, P.; Schmidt, W.-P.; Boisson, S.; Clasen, T.; Jenkins, M.W. Socio-Cultural and Behavioural Factors Constraining Latrine Adoption in Rural Coastal Odisha: An Exploratory Qualitative Study. BMC Public Health 2015, 15, 880, doi:10.1186/s12889-015-2206-3.
43. De Buck, E.; Van Remoortel, H.; Hannes, K.; Govender, T.; Naidoo, S.; Avau, B.; Veegaete, A. Vande; Musekiwa, A.; Lutje, V.; Cargo, M.; et al. Approaches to Promote Handwashing and Sanitation Behaviour Change in Low‐ and Middle‐income Countries: A Mixed Method Systematic Review. Campbell Systematic Reviews 2017, 13, 1–447, doi:10.4073/csr.2017.7.
44. Chong, J.; Abeysuriya, K.; Hidayat, L.; Sulistio, H.; Willetts, J. Strengthening Local Governance Arrangements for Sanitation: Case Studies of Small Cities in Indonesia. Aquat Procedia 2016, 6, 64–73, doi:10.1016/j.aqpro.2016.06.008.
Authors
Wahyudi, R. (2026) “Integrated Pollution Index and Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment of 2021–2023 Surface Water Quality in The Kapuas River, Sanggau Regency, Indonesia”, Jurnal Pengelolaan Sumberdaya Alam dan Lingkungan (Journal of Natural Resources and Environmental Management), 16(2), p. 201. doi:10.29244/jpsl.16.2.201.
Copyright (c) 2026 Reza Wahyudi, Anis M. Fauzi, Sri Budiarti, Setyo Pertiwi, Neni Sintawardhani
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How to Cite
Wahyudi, R. (2026) “Integrated Pollution Index and Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment of 2021–2023 Surface Water Quality in The Kapuas River, Sanggau Regency, Indonesia”, Jurnal Pengelolaan Sumberdaya Alam dan Lingkungan (Journal of Natural Resources and Environmental Management), 16(2), p. 201. doi:10.29244/jpsl.16.2.201.
