Monitoring Forest Cover Change and Encroachment Risk Mapping Using the Normalized Difference Fraction Index (NDFI): A Case Study of Gunung HalimunSalak National Park, Indonesia
Abstract
Gunung Halimun Salak National Park (GHSNP) is one of the most biodiversity-rich protected areas in Java, yet it remains highly vulnerable to deforestation and forest degradation. This study examines forest cover dynamics from 1994 to 2024 and projects village-level encroachment risk for 2034. Landsat 5 TM, Landsat 7 ETM+, and Landsat 8–9 OLI imagery were processed in Google Earth Engine to generate the Normalized Difference Fraction Index (NDFI) using spectral mixture analysis of GV, NPV, soil, and shade fractions. Changes in NDFI (ΔNDFI) were used to classify degradation, deforestation, regrowth, and intact forest. Encroachment risk mapping was modeled using a 3 × 3 kernel neighborhood with two analytical approaches: the sum of risk weight and the majority of risks around. Forest cover declined by 19,424 ha between 1994 and 2004, largely driven by illegal encroachment linked to governance uncertainty in 2003. An increase of 6,678 ha during 2004–2014 reflects the impact of restoration initiatives and strengthened area protection, although a subsequent decline of 1,992 ha occurred between 2014 and 2024 due to renewed encroachment. Model evaluation indicates low predictive performance for both kernel methods (Precision 4%). Despite this limitation, areas of elevated risk consistently appeared along forest edges near settlements and footpath access routes. Citorek Kidul was identified as the village most susceptible to encroachment in 2034. Improving the accuracy of encroachment prediction will require the integration of socio-economic drivers and advanced machine-learning approaches capable of capturing the complex and non-linear patterns of forest encroachment.
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References
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Budiman, A.; Adhikerana, A.S. Rencana Pemantapan dan Pengelolaan Sumberdaya Alam Taman Nasional Gunung Halimun. Halimun. 2000, 2, 3-10.
Cardille, J.A.; Crowley, M.A.; Saah, D.; Clinton, N.E. (Eds.). Cloud-Based Remote Sensing with Google Earth Engine: Fundamentals and Applications. Springer Nature. 2023.
Delgado-Moreno, D.; Gao, Y. Forest Degradation Estimation Through Trend Analysis of Annual Time Series NDVI, NDMI and NDFI (2010–2020) Using Landsat Images. Forestry Engineering. 2022, 1-13. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-98096-2_11
Dewi, C.M. Kondisi Ekonomi Masyarakat Kasepuhan Sinar Resmi Akibat Perluasan Kawasan Taman Nasional Gunung Halimun Salak (TNGHS). Jurnal Mozaik. 2018, 10, 22-25.
Guo, Y.; Long, T.; Jiao, W.; Zhang, X.; He, G.; Wang, W.; et al. Siamese Detail Difference and Self-Inverse Network for Forest Cover Change Extraction Based on Landsat 8 OLI Satellite Images. Remote Sensing. 2022, 14, 627. doi: 10.3390/rs14030627
Hartoyo, A.P.P.; Pamoengkas, P.; Mudzaky, R.H.; Khairunnisa, S.; Ramadhi, A.; Munawir, A.; et al. Estimation of Vegetation Cover Changes Using Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) in Mount Halimun Salak National Park, Indonesia. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 2022, 1109, 012068. doi: 10.29244/jpsl.14.1.109
Jelas, I.M.; Zulkifley, M.A.; Abdullah, M.; Spraggon, M. Deforestation Detection Using Deep Learning-Based Semantic Segmentation Techniques: A Systematic Review. Frontiers in Forests and Global Change. 2024, doi:10.3389/ffgc.2024.1300060.
Karaman, K. Deforestation Detection in the Amazon with Sentinel-1 Sar Image Time Series. ISPRS Annals of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences. 2023, doi:10.5194/isprs-annals-x-1-w1-2023.
Khairunnisa, S.; Pamoengkas, P.; Hartoyo, A.P.P. Analysis of NDVI and Plant Vegetation Diversity in the Traditional Zone, Mount Halimun Salak National Park, Bogor. Jurnal Pengelolaan Sumberdaya Alam dan Lingkungan (Journal of Natural Resources and Environmental Management). 2024, 14, 109-118. doi: 10.29244/jpsl.14.1.109
Kurniawan, I.; Barus, B.; Pravitasari, A.E. Spatial Modelling of Land Use Change in Gunung Halimun Salak National Park and Its Buffer Area. Journal of Regional and Rural Development Planning. 2017, 1, 270-286. doi:10.29244/jp2wd.2017.1.3.270-286
Kurniawan, W.; Kusmana, C.; Basuni, S.; Munandar, A.; Kholil, K. Landuse Conflicts Analysis at Mount Halimun Salak National Park. Journal of Natural Resources and Environmental Management. 2013, 3, 23-23. doi: 10.19081/jpsl.2013.3.1.23
Prabowo, S.A.; Basuni, S.; Suharjito, D. Enduring Conflict: Settlement in Halimun-Salak National Park Area. Jurnal Manajemen Hutan Tropika. 2010, 16, 137-142.
Prasetyo, L.B.; Yudi, S.; Tri, P. Studi Perubahan Penutupan Lahan Taman Nasional Gunung Halimun Salak. Pusat Penelitian Lingkungan Hidup dan Gunung Halimun Salak National Park Management Project-Japan International Cooperation Agency, Bogor. 2006.
Pratidina, G.; Purnamasari, I. Study on Community Empowerment Through Conservation Village Policy Around Halimun Salak Mountain National Park. Jurnal Sosial Humaniora. 2012, 3, 44-57.
Prawiradilaga, D.M. Birds of Halimun-Salak National Park, West Java, Indonesia: Endemism, Conservation and Threatened Status. Treubia. 2016, 43, 47–70, doi:10.14203/TREUBIA.V43I0.2971.
Purwatiningsih, S.D. Pemahaman Masyarakat Sekitar Hutan Pada Informasi Konservasi Hutan Dalam Memanfaatkan dan Melestarikan Hutan Taman Nasional Gunung Halimun Salak. IKRA-ITH HUMANIORA: Jurnal Sosial Dan Humaniora. 2022, 6, 110-120.
Puyravaud, J.P. Standardizing the Calculation of the Annual Rate of Deforestation. Forest Ecology and Management. 2003, 177, 593-596. doi: 10.1016/S0378-1127(02)00335-3
Rahmawati, R.; Pratidina, G.; Muarif. Strategi Adaptasi Ekologis dan Pengentasan Kemiskinan Pada Masyarakat Sekitar Taman Nasional Gunung Halimun Salak. Jurnal Sosial Humaniora. 2011, 2, 26-43.
Rojas, E.; Zutta, B.R.; Velazco, Y.K.; Montoya-Zumaeta, J.G.; Salvà-Catarineu, M. Deforestation Risk in the Peruvian Amazon Basin. Environmental Conservation. 2021, 48, 310-319. doi: 10.1017/S0376892921000291
Souza Jr, Carlos M.; Roberts, Dar A.; Cochrane, Mark A. Combining spectral and spatial information to map canopy damage from selective logging and forest fires. Remote Sensing of Environment, 2005, 98.2-3: 329-343. doi: 10.1016/j.rse.2005.07.013
Supriyanto, B.; Kubo, H.; Sundawiati, A. Changes in National Park Governance: Case Study in Gunung Halimun Salak National Park). Media Konservasi. 2010, 15, 43-56.
Sardjo, S.; Dharmawan, A. H.; Darusman, D.; Wahyuni, E. The Agricultural Expansion in Conservation Areas: The Case of Gunung Halimun Salak National Park, West Java. Forest and Society. 2022, 6, 742-762. doi: 10.24259/fs.v6i2.18380
Sboui, T; Saidi, S; Lakti, A. A machine-learning-based approach to predict deforestation related to oil palm: Conceptual framework and experimental evaluation. Applied Sciences, 2023, 13.3: 1772. doi: 10.3390/app13031772
Wahab, M.A.A.; Surin, E.S.M.; Nayan, N.M. An Approach to Mapping Deforestation in Permanent Forest Reserve Using the Convolutional Neural Network and Sentinel-1 Synthetic Aperture Radar. 2021 Fifth International Conference on Information Retrieval and Knowledge Management (CAMP). 2021, 59-64. doi: 10.1109/CAMP51653.2021.9498144
Wanie, C.M.; Nganjo, R.N. Tropical Montane Rain Forest Biodiversity and Environmental Sustainability in Cameroon’s North Western Highlands. International Journal of Forestry and Horticulture. 2018, 4, 1–11. doi: 10.20431/2454-9487.0404001
Widodo, W.; Sulistyadi, E.; Istiadi, Y. Study of the Threat Status of 56 Bird Species Have Received Little Attention in Java. Evolutionary Studies in Imaginative Culture. 2024, 956–968, doi:10.70082/esiculture.vi.1165.
Widyaningsih, T.S.; Hani, A. Praktik Agroforestri Di Kawasan Penyangga Taman Nasional Gunung Halimun-Salak. Seminar Nasional Agroforestri. 2012, 3, 481-486.
Wulansari, M.; Fawzi, I.L. Peran Yayasan Kehati dalam Program Prakarsa Lintasan Hijau Halimun Salak. Jurnal Ilmu Kesejahteraan Sosial. 2020, 21, 1-13, doi:10.7454/jurnalkessos.v21i1.245.
Authors
Ahmad Fahrur Rizqi (2025) “Monitoring Forest Cover Change and Encroachment Risk Mapping Using the Normalized Difference Fraction Index (NDFI): A Case Study of Gunung HalimunSalak National Park, Indonesia”, Jurnal Pengelolaan Sumberdaya Alam dan Lingkungan (Journal of Natural Resources and Environmental Management), 15(6), p. 1060. doi:10.29244/jpsl.15.6.1060.
Copyright (c) 2025 Ahmad Fahrur Rizqi, Adisti Permatasari Putri Hartoyo, Mursalina Nur Buana, Novia Damayanti, David Anderson Lubis , Yurico Bakhri
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Ahmad Fahrur Rizqi (2025) “Monitoring Forest Cover Change and Encroachment Risk Mapping Using the Normalized Difference Fraction Index (NDFI): A Case Study of Gunung HalimunSalak National Park, Indonesia”, Jurnal Pengelolaan Sumberdaya Alam dan Lingkungan (Journal of Natural Resources and Environmental Management), 15(6), p. 1060. doi:10.29244/jpsl.15.6.1060.
