Quail farming is a growing and dynamic part of the global poultry industry, driven by rising consumer demand for lean meat and nutrient-rich eggs(Entrance, 2025). The global quail meat market, valued at $75.85 million in 2024, is projected to reach $81.97 million in 2025(Insight, 2025). Domesticated quails, particularly the Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica), are now raised worldwide, with the Asia-Pacific region leading the market at 35% share in 2024(Quail meat market size, 2025). In Indonesia, quail farming is vital for smallholder farmers, providing income and nutrition. The national quail population reached 24.28 million in 2024(Statistik, 2024), producing approximately 25,770 tons of eggs annually, with Central Java contributing over 8,800 tons from 4.6 million birds(Animal Husbandry & Kesehatan Hewan, 2022). This sector is crucial for ensuring food security, generating employment opportunities, and supporting low-income rural households.

Although quail farming in Indonesia is gaining importance, it faces constant challenges that hinder its productivity and long-term sustainability. These challenges include feed quality(Gao et al., 2021);(Ibrahim et al., 2020), environmental stressors(El Sabry et al., 2022), and suboptimal poultry management practices(Ratriyanto et al., 2020). Among these, biosecurity has become a key element of an effective strategy for maintaining flock health and preventing the spread of infectious diseases. Effective biosecurity encompasses a set of conceptual, structural, and operational measures that aim to minimize the risk of pathogen entry and transmission within and between flocks and farms(Tilli et al., 2022);(Delpont et al., 2023). When implemented consistently, biosecurity is not only the most cost-effective way to protect flock health, cut economic losses, and reduce zoonotic risks to farm workers and nearby communities, but also a key strategy for promoting animal welfare, food safety, and environmental sustainability.

Water quality greatly influences poultry health and productivity. Contaminated drinking water may contain microbial pathogens, such as E. coli and Coliform bacteria, indicating fecal contamination(Mohamed et al., 2025). These pathogens can spread disease, cause stress, and reduce feed efficiency. Combining water quality management and hygiene practices with biosecurity measures lowers infection risk and boosts farm resilience(Jimenez et al., 2023);(Paramitadevi et al., 2023). Moreover, endoparasitic infections, often overlooked, present serious threats in quail farming. Parasites such as Eimeria, Ascaridia, Strongyloides, and Capillaria spp. have been found in the small intestine and feces of quail worldwide, including in India(D’souza et al., 2022), Nigeria(Onyeabor & Uwalaka, 2022), Egypt(Ahmed et al., 2017), Brazil(Neiva et al., 2024), and the Amazon(Monte et al., 2018). These parasites damage the gastrointestinal tract, impair nutrient absorption, and reduce productivity. However, studies on the prevalence of endoparasites in Indonesian quails are limited, with most research focusing on chickens(Murwani et al., 2022);(Setyowati et al., 2022), highlighting a significant knowledge gap regarding the parasitic burdens of quails.

This study aims to fill the gap by assessing biosecurity implementation, water quality, and endoparasite prevalence in small-scale quail farming systems in key quail-producing areas in Semarang and its surrounding regions. Using field observations, interviews, laboratory diagnostics, and statistical analysis, the study highlights significant challenges related to biosecurity practices, water quality, and parasite burdens. The results are expected to provide data to help develop targeted interventions that improve farm management, promote animal health, and strengthen the economic resilience of smallholder farmers involved in quail production. Additionally, the findings could offer valuable insights applicable to similar poultry systems worldwide, supporting broader efforts to strengthen biosecurity and disease control in small-scale operations and helping to build resilience and sustainability in smallholder agriculture globally.

This study was conducted in Semarang City, Semarang Regency, Demak Regency, and Kendal Regency, areas known for their quail farms and regional development potential (Figure 1). The study included ten existing quail farms (L1-L10) selected through purposive random sampling based on available quail farms. The interview data were analyzed descriptively, while quantitative data on water quality, endoparasite types, and counts were analyzed statistically. All farms housed quails in five-tier cages, with each tier holding approximately 25 to 30 birds.

There were three brands of layer feed used by the quail farmers (B, C, F). Despite using different brands, the nutritional composition of the feed during the layer phase is nearly the same (Table 2). The highest crude protein content was found in L2 (21%).

Table 3 shows that the quail population at the sampling sites ranges from 1,100 to 6,750 birds. Egg production across the 10 locations varies from 64.29% to 90.00%, depending on the age of the birds. The drinking water sources at L3, L7, and L9 are from an artesian well. L2 and L8 use a conventional well, while L1, L4, L5, L6, and L10 source their water from springs. The best biosecurity practices are observed at L1, L7, and L9, with scores ranging from 13 to 15. Biosecurity at L2, L3, L4, and L5 scored lower, between 9 and 10, while L8 and L10 scored the lowest at 6. Water quality shows an average pH of 4.8 to 8, with E. coli levels at 19.33 CFU/mL. Notably, L5 had the highest Coliform count at 89.67 CFU/mL. The quail droppings from L1 have the highest number of endoparasites, with Coccidia at 1.000 OPG, Strongyloides at 100 OPG, and Ascaridia sp. at 33.33 OPG. In contrast, no endoparasites are detected in L7 quail droppings.

The Kruskal-Wallis non-parametric analysis (p<0.05) showed that biosecurity did not affect the number of Coccidia (p-value= 0.16), Strongyloides (p-value= 0.40), and Ascaridia sp. (p-value= 0.67) (Table 4). There were no significant differences observed in water pH and E. coli levels across different water sources. However, Coliform levels varied significantly depending on the water source (p<0.05) (Table 5).

Biosecurity implementation across farms revealed varying degrees of compliance. Conceptual biosecurity was well implemented in L2, L5, and L9, which were located over 200 meters from settlements. However, L7 lacked proper site selection based on environmental parameters. Structurally, most farms (L1–L7, L9) maintained cage layout and spacing, but several (L4, L6, L7, L8, L10) lacked dedicated feed storage, potentially compromising feed quality over time. Operational biosecurity practices were consistently implemented, with all farms conducting sanitation and disinfection procedures. However, only L7 implemented traffic control measures, such as hand disinfection and the use of protective clothing. This farm also had the lowest bird population, suggesting that smaller-scale operations may facilitate more rigorous biosecurity enforcement.

The quail farms surveyed in Semarang and its surrounding areas showed bird populations ranging from 1,100 to 6,750 individuals. Egg production varied with age, reaching 79.17% at 10 weeks (L7), 80% at 12 weeks (L6), and peaking between 82.50% and 90% at 16–17 weeks (L1, L9, L10). A decline was seen between 32 and 40 weeks (L3–L5, L8), with the lowest rate of 64.29% at 40 weeks (L2). These patterns align with previous studies reporting egg production rates between 55.78% and 91% for quails aged 10 to 32 weeks(Gül et al., 2022);(Hossain et al., 2024);(Lokapirnasari et al., 2017);(Murwani et al., 2024);(Silva et al., 2020), confirming that the observed performance remains within expected physiological norms.

Water quality assessments showed pH values ranging from 4.8 to 8.0. The ideal pH range for drinking water suitable for broilers is 5.5-6.5(Hubbard, 2025). However, since quail are smaller than chickens, they may be more sensitive to water pH, with a target of 6.0-6.8(Trends, 2023). Ideal water pH supports optimal digestion, nutrient absorption, gut microbial balance, palatability, and water intake. A pH below 5 could irritate the digestive lining, while a pH above 6.8 could reduce mineral solubility and promote the growth of harmful bacteria. E. coli levels varied from 0 to 19.33 CFU/mL, and Coliform counts ranged from 0 to 89.67 CFU/mL. Acceptable limits for E. coli and Coliform are 0 CFU/100 mL. The presence of these bacteria indicates fecal contamination, likely from human, animal, or environmental sources(W.H.O., 2017);(Reitter et al., 2021). While E. coli is often non-pathogenic, certain strains, such as APEC, can cause colibacillosis and colisepticemia(Samanta et al., 2018);(Ananda et al., 2023).

Endoparasites identified in this study included Coccidia, Strongyloides, and Ascaridia sp., marking a novel contribution to the Indonesian poultry health literature. To our knowledge, this is the first report documenting endoparasitic infections in quail farms in Indonesia. Among the sampled locations, farm L1 exhibited the highest parasite burden, while farm L7 showed no detectable endoparasites. This contrast underscores the crucial role of traffic control and sanitation in mitigating parasite transmission(Talazadeh et al., 2024). Additionally, the smaller flock size at L7 may have facilitated more effective management and biosecurity practices. Coccidia oocysts are transmitted via contaminated equipment, footwear, feed, water, and personnel. The pathogenicity of Coccidia, specifically Eimeria spp., is well-documented, with lesions in the intestinal mucosa leading to hemorrhage, dehydration, and impaired nutrient absorption(Belete et al., 2016);(Blake et al., 2021);(Das, 2021). In contrast, Strongyloides and Ascaridia sp. are associated with metabolic disorders, reduced growth, and poor feed conversion(Ombugadu et al., 2021);(Afia et al., 2019);(Zulmi et al., 2020).

The Kruskal–Wallis test revealed no significant differences in endoparasite prevalence across biosecurity groups (p>0.05), indicating that infections may originate from breeder-level sources. Quails are typically introduced to farms at approximately one month of age, just before the onset of egg laying, and may already harbor endoparasites at the time of arrival. Similarly, no significant differences were observed in water pH and E. coli levels across different water sources. However, Coliform levels varied significantly depending on the water source (p<0.05). Notably, artesian wells exhibited significantly lower Coliform contamination (p<0.05), likely attributable to natural soil filtration and deeper construction (100–200 m), which limits exposure to surface pollutants(Santos et al., 2023);(Somaratne & Hallas, 2015). In contrast, conventional wells and springs are more susceptible to contamination due to their shallow depth (10–20 m) and frequent absence of protective casings. This increases vulnerability to runoff, flooding, and proximity to waste sources(Putri et al., 2024);(Somaratne & Hallas, 2015). Properly constructed artesian systems also reduce direct contact with contaminants compared to open springs or inadequately sealed conventional wells. Elevated Coliform levels observed in this study may be further exacerbated by contamination from animal and human waste, as well as increased rainfall, which can intensify surface water infiltration(Bagordo et al., 2024);(Mondal & Mishra, 2024).

These findings highlight the importance of integrated biosecurity and water management strategies. Regular sanitation, controlled access, and clean water sources are essential for reducing microbial and parasitic threats. Future interventions should also focus on breeder-level health screening and promoting farmer education to improve disease prevention and farm sustainability.

Coliform levels are affected by the quality of the water source. Although no statistically significant difference exists between biosecurity and endoparasite prevalence, farms practicing better traffic control and sanitation (such as L7) had lower endoparasite loads. These results underscore the importance of targeted actions, including improved water source management, regular testing for bird droppings and drinking water, and enhanced biosecurity measures. Improving these practices can significantly enhance quail health, productivity, and farm sustainability.