Impact of Ethnocentrism and Other Factors on Willingness to Buy Chinese Cars

This study aims to determine the effect of ethnocentrism, animosity, product country image, and brand image on the willingness to buy Chinese car products. Data were collected from Chinese car users and potential car buyers. The purposive sampling technique was chosen in this study, which resulted in 300 respondents for analysis. Data were analysed using exploratory factor analysis and structural equation modelling. The results showed that ethnocentrism had a significant positive effect on animosity and had a significant negative effect on brand image, animosity had a significant negative effect on willingness to buy, the brand image had a positive and significant effect on willingness to buy, and product country image had a significant positive effect on brand image. Meanwhile, ethnocentrism and product country image do not affect willingness to buy. This study helps to improve our understanding of consumer behaviour regarding the purchase of foreign products.

Kata kunci: animositas, citra merek, citra negara produk, etnosentrisme, kesediaan untuk membeli Introduction Global economic growth is supported by contributions from several countries, one of which is China. The magnitude of China's influence can control more than half of the global economy (Irpan & Ruswanti, 2020). Currently, China is a country that continues to strive to improve the image of a country that produces low-priced, low-quality, and unfashionable products to become a country that produces quality and valued products in the world market (Atika, 2018). However, China, which is developing as a leading producing country, is still considered low product quality (Firdausya, 2020).
One of the Chinese products that are starting to show off is automotive. Wuling Motors is one of the automotive brands from China in Indonesia. Based on data compiled by the Association of Indonesian Automotive Industries (Gaikindo) shows throughout 2019, this Chinese brand car recorded sales to dealers (wholesales) of 17,731 units (Gaikindo, 2019). This amount is equivalent to 1.9% of total car sales in Indonesia throughout 2019. The brand category that is still new shows the performance and seriousness of Chinese products to attract public buying interest in Indonesia's automotive market. Kowang et al. (2018) stated that the main factors influencing willingness to buy automotive products are price, design, features, and interpersonal influences. Other supporting factors that might affect willingness to buy automotive products are brand and product reliability. Knowledge of consumer willingness to buy is needed by marketers or marketers to determine consumer buying interest for a product or to predict consumer rejection in the future (Harly & Octavia, 2014). Research on willingness to buy has been widely studied in various industries, using consumers as respondents to the research. Previous research found ethnocentrism and animosity harmed the willingness to buy computer products made in Taiwan (Souiden, Ladhari, & Chang, 2018). Other research showed a positive relationship between brand image and willingness to buy women's fashion products at a premium price (Munir, Humayon, Ahmed, Haider, & Jehan, 2017). Another study conducted in China stated the negative influence of animosity on consumers' willingness to buy hybrid products. These products involve affiliates from two or more countries (such as brands in Japan but made in China) (Cheah, Phau, Kea, & Huang, 2016).
Consumer purchasing decision-making is always a concern for product marketers. One of the determinants that influence consumers in choosing products is the effect of the product country image or the country of origin (Fischer & Zeugner, 2017). Products will gain a good position in front of consumers when associated with a country with a positive image. The opposite happens when a product is associated with a country with a negative image (Milovan-Ciuta, Ardelean, Sahour, & Jurca, 2019). Based on previous research, it is stated that product country image positively affects willingness to buy (Munir et al., 2017;Bushra & Zafar, 2017).
According to Tjiptono (2005), one of the variables that influencing the willingness to buy local brands is ethnocentrism. Consumers can become ethnocentrism, which is an attitude that negatively considers the purchase of imported goods and is more proud of homemade products. Consumers who embrace ethnocentrism will negatively affect their willingness to buy foreign products (Guo & Zhou, 2017;Quang, Chien, & Long, 2017;Souiden et al., 2018;Zeren, Kara, & Arango, 2020).
Another factor that can influence willingness to buy is animosity. This level of animosity (animosity) can arise on historical, political, and economic events that are negative emotions to negatively influence consumer buying behavior (Klein, Ettenson, & Morris, 1998). Research by Feng and Yu (2016) suggested that consumers can judge right quality products or not. However, because of the high level of hostility towards the producing country, consumers still do not desire to buy the product. Research conducted by Souiden et al. (2018) showed that animosity had a significant negative effect on willingness to buy. Furthermore, research from Quang et al. (2017) also stated that the animosity variable has a significant negative effect on the willingness to buy.
The brand image will influence consumers who are selective in choosing a product to buy for a product that the product has. Kotler and Keller (2016) define the brand image as an extrinsic trait of a product or service, including how a brand attempts to meet its psychological or social needs. The relationship between willingness to buy and brand image is shown by Amron (2018), which proved a significant positive influence between brand image and willingness to buy. This study examines ethnocentrism, animosity, product country image, and brand image on the willingness to buy Chinese car products.
This study seeks to answer the following research questions: (1) Does ethnocentrism affect animosity, brand image, and willingness to buy? (2) Does product country image affect brand image and willingness to buy? (3) Do animosity and brand image affect willingness to buy?

Ethnocentrism and Animosity
Ethnocentrism in customers is also a symbol and value of ethnicity on one's own or a group of nationalities as an object of pride and love. In contrast, other symbols or groups can be an object that is despicable or bad (LeVine & Campbell, 1972). Several studies have shown the relationship between ethnocentrism and animosity (Souiden et al., 2018;Quang et al., 2017). Souiden et al. (2018) researched with a sample of consumers from China proved that ethnocentrism had a significant positive effect on animosity. Furthermore, Quang et al. (2017) researched with a sample of consumers from Vietnam, showing that ethnocentrism had a significant positive effect on animosity. Thus H1, ethnocentrism will have a significant positive effect on animosity.

Ethnocentrism and Willingness to Buy
Willingness to buy is a behavior that appears in response to objects that indicate a consumer's desire to make a purchase. Ethnocentric consider encouragement and understanding of consumer behavior about affective and normative aspects of buying local products. Consumer ethnocentrism provides individually sensitive feelings towards identity, feelings, and feelings of belonging and acceptance or rejection of a group (Shimp & Sharma, 1987). Several previous studies link ethnocentrism with a willingness to buy (Souiden et al., 2018;Quang et al., 2017;Zeren et al., 2020). Souiden et al. (2018), in their research, describes that ethnocentrism had a significant negative effect on willingness to buy.
Furthermore, Quang et al. (2017), in their research conducted on Vietnamese consumers, explained that there was a significant negative effect between ethnocentrism and willingness to buy children's food products. Research by Zeren et al. (2020) towards consumers from Turkey and Colombia proved a significant negative effect between ethnocentrism and willingness to buy foreign products. Thus H2, ethnocentrism will have a significant negative effect on willingness to buy.

Ethnocentrism and Brand Image
Brand image is a perception and belief held by consumers regarding a specific product (Amron, 2018). In developing countries, consumers think that local producers' products are not as good as imported products (Wang & Chen, 2004). With ethnocentrism, there is a tendency for consumers to accept or reject various foreignmade products. This relationship is supported by Fakharmanesh and Miyandehi (2013), which stated that ethnocentrism had a significant negative effect on brand image. Thus H3, ethnocentrism will have a significant negative effect on brand image.

Product Country Image and Brand Image
Consumers' perceptions of quality and purchasing decisions are influenced not only by brand names but also by the country's location where the product is manufactured or assembled (Pappu, Quester, & Cooksey, 2007). Lo et al. (2017) stated an influence between product country image on brand image. This proposition is strengthened by the results of empirical research, which showed that there is a significant positive influence between product country image on the brand image (Xin & Seo, 2019;Hien, Phuong, Tran, & Thang, 2020). Thus H4, product country image will have a significant positive effect on brand image.

Animosity and Willingness to Buy
Animosity refers to a group of citizens in one country towards another country's products, manifested in strong negative emotions towards purchasing products from countries they do not like (Quang et al., 2017). This relationship is supported by the research conducted by Souiden et al. (2018) with Chinese consumer respondents to assess Taiwan products, showing that animosity has a significantly negative effect on willingness to buy. Besides, research from Quang et al. (2017) with Vietnamese consumers also stated that the war animosity and economic animosity variables negatively affected willingness to buy children's food products. Thus H5, animosity will have a significant negative effect on willingness to buy.

Brand Image and Willingness to Buy
According to Durianto, Sugiarto, and Sitinjak (2004), willingness to buy is related to the consumer's plan to buy a particular product and how many products are needed in a certain period. Brand image is placed as a basic understanding of consumers on certain types of brands. When the brand image can stick closely to consumers' memory, a brand will be closer to consumers' choice. A good brand image should always be introduced to consumers regularly to in consumers' memory (Lau & Phau, 2007). Amron's (2018) research showed a significant positive effect between brand image and willingness to buy. Thus H6, brand image will have a significant positive effect on willingness to buy.

Product Country Image and Willingness to Buy
The decision to buy the product about being offered and competitive advantage is influenced by where the product is produced (Lo, Tung, Wang, & Huang, 2017). The product category and its origin influence the buying decision in an item. Most consumers prefer products that they consider comfortable when buying, and consumers choose the country's specific producer as a consideration (Lo et al., 2017). Research conducted by Munir et al. (2017) proved that product country image plays a significant role in influencing willingness to buy. Research conducted by Bushra and Zafar (2017) with respondents from Pakistan showed a significant and positive influence between product country image on willingness to buy. Thus H7, product country image will have a significant positive effect on willingness to buy.
Based on the literature discussion above, the research model is shown in Figure 1. Exogenous variables (independent variables) in this study were ethnocentrism and product country image, while animosity, brand image, and willingness to buy were the endogenous variables (dependent variables).

Participants
The research method has been designed following the variables to be investigated to test the proposed hypothesis. The type of data used in this study is primary data. In this case, we use a questionnaire to obtain data from respondents. The data source comes from a questionnaire distributed by researchers to the analysis unit in this study. The sampling method in this study was purposive sampling. This study's respondents were car users and potential Chinese car buyers who had visited Wuling Motors central showroom in Jakarta, Depok, Bogor, Tangerang, and Bekasi. The research sample was taken as many as 300 respondents.

Measurement
This research was conducted in Indonesia, so the questionnaire statements were adapted to use Indonesian. Five items from Wang and Chen (2004) were adopted and adapted to measure willingness to buy and animosity. Six items from Ahmed et al. (2004) were to measure ethnocentrism. Further, six items from Han and Wang (2012) were adapted and used to measure product country image, and five items from Kim Choi, Kim, and Liu (2015) were to measure brand image. A five-point Likert scale was used in this study. The operational definition of each variable is presented in Table 1. Perceptions of prospective buyers of a perceived value regarding appropriateness and morality in buying products made by foreigners, as measured by indicators of unemployment, job losses, the economic threat Product country image Perceptions of prospective buyers of the quality of foreign country products as measured by indicators of the level of technological progress, product prices, prestige, product quality, and warranty service Animosity Perceptions of hatred by a prospective buyer for a foreign product as measured by a feeling of antipathy towards a specific country and reluctance to be associated with a particular country Brand image A form of confidence from prospective buyers to buy an item as measured by indicators of product fame, product excellence, and product quality Willingness to buy The extent to which prospective buyers are willing to pay for foreign products given the benefits that are felt and the benefits obtained.

Data Analysis
The data analysis technique used exploratory factor analysis with SPSS 25.0 to validate the research instrument and descriptive analysis for participant characteristics. Then apply Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to test the research hypothesis using AMOS 24.0. There are two SEM analysis stages: measuring the research model with confirmatory factor analysis, and secondly, measuring the structural model with criteria that must meet the Goodness of fit (GOF).

Participant Characteristics
The sample in this study are consumers who have used car vehicles and prospective Chinese car buyers. Respondents in this study were 300 people. The majority of respondents were male (69.3%), aged 40-49 years (41%), married (82.3%), had S1 education (79.6%), and work as private employees (38.3%).

Exploratory Factor Analysis
Reliability testing using the coefficient of Cronbach's Alpha. The results of the calculations can be seen in Table 2. A measurement is reliable if the value of Cronbach's Alpha (α)> 0.70. The resulting factor loading value is a calculation from exploratory factor analysis to review each measurement item's validation. Based on Table 2, the Cronbach's Alpha Coefficient value> 0.7 in the study's construct has met the reliability criteria. Exploratory factor analysis produced five factors. The factor loading value of each item has also been above 0.5. Each of the highest loading factor values for each variable is as follows, for willingness to buy is shown by WTB4 with a score of 0.907 ("if available, I prefer to buy Chinese products"), Ani2 shows animosity with a score of 0.786 ("China wants to control the Indonesian economy"), Eth6 shows ethnocentrism with a score of 0.799 ("we should only buy products from abroad that we cannot get in our own country"), the product country image is shown by PCI3 with a score of 0.875 ("Chinese cars are reliable"), and BI4 shows the brand image with a score 0.905 ("Wuling have different advantages from competitors"). Thus, the statements used to measure each construct are valid and reliable.

Hypotheses testing
This study uses a structural equation model. We test the proposed model with the final fit model shown in Figure 2. The model had previously gone through the confirmatory factor analysis, where several items needed to be dropped to achieve the fit model.  Figure 2 shows that the structural model has been modified according to the criteria for model fit parameters suggested by Hair et al. (2019), aiming to achieve a suitable model. The structural model modifications in Figure 2, summarized in Table 3, prove that the modified model has met the fit criteria' Goodness. Based on Table 3, the Chi-square (x2) value obtained is 33.515, which means that it has reached the fit model. Likewise, the resulting P-value is more significant than ≥ 0.05, namely 0.181, the model with a good model fit. The small chi-square value with a probability greater than the significance level indicates no significant difference between the predictive covariance matrix and the observed data. The CMIN / DF value ≤ 5.00 is 1.241, then the GFI, AGFI, TLI, IFI, CFI values all have values ≥ of 0.90. Only the PGFI value has not exceeded the cut-off value, but the overall research model has met the goodness of fit. Thus the structural model developed can be used for testing the research hypothesis.
Hypothesis testing is carried out based on the value of the critical ratio (CR) and the probability level in the regression weight, which requires a CR value ≥ of 1.96 and P ≤ 0.05 to accept the hypothesis. The CR value results and the hypothesized probability level between variables can be seen in the results as in Table 4. The results showed that five paths, including H1, H3, H4, H5, and H6, had a C.R. 5.140, -2.349, 12.827, -2.438, and 5.859, respectively, which means that the five paths are significant and support the hypothesis. While the other path, H2, has a C.R. 2.325, it does not have a negative relationship, so it does not follow the theory. Likewise, H7 has a C.R. 0.210, which means it is not significant, so that H2 and H7 are rejected.

Discussion
The first hypothesis predicts the effect of ethnocentrism on animosity. Based on Table 4, ethnocentrism had a positive and significant effect on animosity. This study confirms previous studies conducted by Souiden et al. (2018) and Quang et al. (2017). The animosity of consumers in Indonesia is determined by ethnocentrism. Thus the higher the love for domestic products will increase hatred or reluctance to own a foreign product. In the context of consumer behavior, there is literature documenting the tendency of some consumers to import goods while at the same time having a preference for products produced in their own country (Verlegh, 2007). This patriotic perception needs to be tried in the future because domestic product production is still limited.
The second hypothesis predicts the effect of ethnocentrism on the willingness to buy. This finding can be said that the hypothesis is rejected because it cannot reveal a negative relationship between ethnocentrism and willingness to buy Chinese car products. This study cannot confirm previous research regarding ethnocentrism negatively influencing willingness to buy (Souiden et al., 2018;Quang et al., 2017;Zeren et al., 2020;Topçu & Kaplan, 2015;Le, Nguyen, Dinh, & Dang, 2017 ). However, on the other hand, this study's results are following the findings of previous studies that showed that ethnocentrism did not significantly affect willingness to buy (Abdolvand & Azima, 2015;Moraes & Strehlau, 2020;Tong & Li, 2013). Ethnocentric consider encouragement and understanding of consumer behavior about affective and normative aspects of buying local products. Ethnocentrism in consumers provided an individually sensitive feeling towards identity, feelings, and a sense of belonging and acceptance or rejection of a group (Shimp & Sharma, 1987). However, based on this study's results, Indonesian consumers who have the characteristics of a love for local products will experience confusion when faced with a situation that the available local products are not sufficient and the quality is still low. Therefore, they will switch to foreign products because they are needed, and domestic producers have not produced them. This statement opens up opportunities for growth in sales of products originating from abroad.
The third hypothesis predicts the effect of ethnocentrism on brand image. This result shows that ethnocentrism had a negative and significant effect on brand image. It means previous support research conducted by Fakharmanesh and Miyandehi (2013). Ethnocentrism tends to see someone's group in the middle of everything and measure other groups based on established references (Pandian, 1985). In this context, the values or beliefs of an ethnic (group) by consumers from Indonesia can have a negative effect on the brand image of a product from China. Negative news coverage of a country on national media, primarily through social media, can reduce a foreign product's brand image.
The fourth hypothesis predicts the effect of product country image on brand image. This result shows that the product country image had a positive and significant impact on brand image. This study confirms the results of previous studies that state that country product image has a positive and significant effect on the brand image (Haque et al., 2015;Xin & Seo, 2019;Hien et al., 2020). Perceptions of the quality of a country's production can positively impact the brand image of a product. Furthermore, information regarding this product's quality must reach consumers directly because assumptions alone are not sufficient to influence consumer preferences to buy a product, especially foreign products. Kouba (2008) stated that the image of a particular brand's country of origin greatly influences consumer perceptions of the brand image. This perspective is also noted by Hsieh, Pan, and Setiono (2004) that when consumers have a positive perception when they value a brand from a specific country, it improves brand image. Conversely, a specific country's negative image in consumers' view can prevent them from buying the brand.
The fifth hypothesis predicts the effect of animosity on willingness to buy. This result shows that animosity had a significant negative effect on the willingness to buy. It means support of previous studies (Abdolvand & Azima, 2015;Eren, 2013;Fakharmanesh & Miyandehi, 2013;Quang et al., 2017;Souiden et al., 2018). Animosity to Indonesian consumers can reduce interest in buying products from China. The democratic climate in Indonesia opens the opportunity for certain groups to express their aspirations through demonstrations against their disapproval of buying a foreign product. This situation can lead to low consumers owning a specific foreign product. In a situation of high hostility, the reluctance to buy products from these foreign countries is high. This is because the exporting country has taken difficult actions to forgive in the past (Klein et al., 1998).
The sixth hypothesis predicts the effect of brand image on willingness to buy. This result shows that brand image had a significant positive effect on willingness to buy. The results of this study confirm the results of previous studies, which stated that brand image had a positive and significant effect on willingness to buy (Haque et al., 2015;Hien et al., 2020;Fakharmanesh & Miyandehi, 2013;Devita & Agustini, 2019;Adenan, Ali, & Rahman, 2018;Amron, 2018). A product with a good brand image can increase consumer interest in buying a foreign product. In this case, brand image is the main factor in buying products from China. Yagci (2001) found that brand image is an essential factor that plays a role in influencing quality perceptions and consumer attitudes towards products and plays a role in influencing product purchases, thus becoming a strong predictor of willingness to buy a product.
Finally, the seventh hypothesis predicts the effect of product country image on willingness to buy. This finding can be said that the seventh hypothesis is rejected because it cannot reveal a significant relationship between product country image and willingness to buy. The results of this study contradict the results of previous research, which stated that product country image plays a vital role in influencing willingness to buy (Munir et al., 2017;Bushra & Zafar, 2017;Hien et al., 2020;Devita & Aguatini, 2019;Adenan et al., 2018;Abdolvand & Azima, 2015). However, on the other hand, this study's results follow the results of Le et al. (2017) and Moraes & Strehlau (2020), which showed no significant effect of product country image on willingness to buy. The difference in research results illustrates that there are still inconsistencies in the relationship between product country image and willingness to buy. Regional differences, consumer demographic characteristics, and types of foreign products may have influenced the results.
It is acknowledged that the interpretation of the results of this study has several limitations. First, this study focuses on one particular brand. This may affect the generalizability of the conclusions. However, this product is one of China's best vehicle products, so the research results are expected not to be biased. This provides an appropriate context for the research factors that influence willingness to buy. In the future, researchers can consider the impact of geographic differences in conclusion and compare the differences between other major cities in Indonesia to test the adaptability of the conceptual model. Second, the sample size is relatively small compared to Chinese car users in Indonesia. However, the sample size has met empirical guidelines, and our sample is consistent with the characteristics of Chinese car users. Generalizing our conclusions for other aspects of the economy is possible limited. However, this consumer behavior fits into the study's context because our target is to explore the factors that influence willingness to buy.

Conclusion
This study aims to measure the effect of ethnocentrism, animosity, product country image, and brand image on willingness to buy. Based on structural model testing results, two variables successfully predict willingness to buy, and two other variables fail to predict willingness to buy. Brand image is the main factor determining willingness to buy. Furthermore, country product image has the most critical role in brand image, and it is undeniable that ethnocentrism significantly affects animosity.
The results of this study have important implications for foreign product producers, particularly those made in China. Chinese automotive manufacturers can continue to compete in the international market by building a good image of the country to improve consumers' views abroad. These findings also expand the literature related to consumer behavior and therefore provide opportunities for future research. In particular, this research can be replicated in other case studies.

Recommendation
This research has limitations, and several suggestions can be made in future research. The factors studied to determine willingness to buy only test four variables: ethnocentrism, animosity, product country image, and brand image. Other factors that also affect willingness to buy to be studied include product quality, price, sales promotion, and other factors. Therefore, it is hoped that it can focus on researching by adding other factors that can influence willingness to buy. Data was then collected in 2020 when the situation was in a pandemic state, affecting consumers' socio-economic impact to buy new products. If it is done in typical situations, it might have different results, so it is also essential to study consumer buying barriers.
This study proposes that companies must improve product materials and new designs, then the government must implement government control mechanisms in assessing how important a product is needed by society. Society can influence users through social and media influence, so it must convey valid information to encourage consumers to buy foreign products, especially those made in China.