A knowledge society (KS) is the creation, dissemination, and application of knowledge that contributes to collective well-being and development. Many definitions show the role of the internet and information technology as key enablers of KS, given the transformative impact on how information is accessed, shared, and used.

In Islam, the pursuit, transmission, and implementation of knowledge are fundamental to human existence. Possessing knowledge as well as being deprived of it profoundly influences an individual's daily life. For Muslims, knowledge enables one to fulfil responsibilities as both a servant ('abd) and a steward (khalifah) of Allah, thereby achieving balance between duniawi (worldly) and ukhrawi (spiritual) obligations.

Although the notion of a knowledge-based society is deeply rooted in Islamic principles, the term “Knowledge Society” was popularized by UNESCO in 2005. This term has been widely adopted across sectors, such as education, economy, industry, and governance. Studies have examined KS in education (Abdelkader & El-Senousy, 2022); (Anderson, 2008) as well as in governance and economic contexts, including Malaysia (Corporation, 2024) and Africa (Bindé, 2005). Despite these growing discussions, the conceptual and practical connection between the KS and a halal industry remains underexplored. Therefore, this study aimed to (i) describe the concept and characteristics of a KS, (ii) analyze the concept through the lens of tawhidic epistemology, and (iii) explore its relevance and application in a halal industry. By addressing this gap, the study contributes to expanding the discourse on the integration of Islamic epistemology within the framework of a halal industry, offering a foundation for the development of a sustainable and ethically grounded halal knowledge ecosystem.

A narrative review method was adopted, synthesising key results from various scholarly sources to provide an overview of the concept and practice of KS in a halal industry. The discussion of the concept also referred to the main sources of Islam, namely the Al-Quran and Hadith, particularly when analysing from the perspective of tawhidic epistemology. The analysis was conducted based on the premise of KS as described by UNESCO, which included freedom of expression, universal access, respect for culture and language, and quality education.

The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) proposed a definition of KS as having the ". . . capabilities to identify, produce, process, transform, disseminate and use information to build and apply knowledge for human development" (Berthoud & Kündig, 2005). This definition shows the steps from generating knowledge to the application for human development. Meanwhile, the sociologist Helmut Willke defined KS as including "the independent production of new knowledge in all functional areas of society" (Hashim et al., 2022). Willke's propositions show the autonomous and inherent nature of the generation of new knowledge, but lack specifics regarding the purpose of KS. Functional areas of society may also include criminology or military activities, which can be the opposite of human development.

(Karpov, 2015) proposed that KS includes the ". . . integration of knowledge within people's lives in ways that maximize the benefits and minimize harms, considering the goals of both economic prosperity and inclusive social equity and justice". This definition focuses on the outcome of KS to be beneficial, either by increasing benefits or reducing harm. The effort should balance the needs of the economy and society. What is common across the different definitions is the generation of new knowledge that is central to the continuation of KS.

The process of generating knowledge was defined extensively by UNESCO (Berthoud & Kündig, 2005) and loosely by Willke (Hashim et al., 2022). However, application of the concept requires a purposeful effort in nurturing a study mindset at all levels of education (Hornidge, 2011). (Karpov, 2015) focused more on the application of the knowledge rather than the generation. This pointed to the collective wealth of knowledge possessed by the global society, showing that meaningful engagement and knowledge exchange between society were the key requirements.

According to UNESCO, the formation of KS depends on ensuring freedom of expression, universal access to information, respect for cultural and linguistic diversity, and the provision of quality education (Berthoud & Kündig, 2005). Within this society, individuals engage in continuous inquiry to comprehend both explicit knowledge (expressive knowledge), which can be articulated, conceptualized, codified, formalized, stored, and accessed. Meanwhile, tacit knowledge is difficult to express or transmit to others, as it includes skills, intuition, and insights gained through personal experience. The process of acquiring and sharing knowledge is facilitated through freedom of expression. This freedom must be exercised responsibly to avoid infringing upon the cultural or moral sensitivities of other society. In the process of interaction and exchanging ideas, clashes of values and beliefs are inevitable, which can become fertile ground for generating new knowledge when managed with mutual respect and understanding. The advancement of information and communication technologies has further increased this process of engagement and knowledge exchange (Karpov, 2015).

The terms "knowledge society", "information society", and "knowledge-based economy" have become prevalent in public discourse, academic literature, and journalism over the past two to three decades. These concepts envision a future in which knowledge assumes an increasingly significant role in driving social and economic development. While scholars from Japan, the United States, and Europe were instrumental in formulating the notions of the KS and information society, the knowledge-based economy was introduced by international organisations, such as the Organization for Economic Co-operation and (OECD), in the late 1990s and the early 2000s. For instance, the STI Scoreboard 2001 presents OECD indicators reflecting the knowledge-based economy through economic and innovation metrics across member countries (O.E.C.D., 2001).

All society were historically rooted in the use and transmission of information, with knowledge serving as a fundamental driver of social welfare and economic advancement. Early human society, based on hunting, fishing, and foraging, relied on shared environmental knowledge. Around 8000 B.C.E., some society began domesticating animals and cultivating land, initiating the domestication revolution and giving rise to horticultural and pastoral society. The invention of the plough around 3000 B.C.E. in regions such as Mesopotamia and Egypt marked a significant transformation, facilitating the transition to agriculture and laying the foundations of agrarian society (Storico, 2019). This agricultural revolution has enabled surplus food production and supported a larger and more complex society. It also coincided with the development of tools, such as the wheel, writing systems, and numerical notation, although land and livestock remained the primary economic resources.

The advent of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century introduced a new society structure that replaced agrarian economies with industries. Characterised by technological innovation, mechanised production, and the rise of factory systems, this shift had far-reaching implications for labour, urbanisation, family structures, and class stratification (Educare, 2025).

(Bell, 1973) was among the first to provide a comprehensive analysis of the post-industrial society, observing the expansion of service-sector employment and the increasing dominance of white-collar over blue-collar labour. The study argued that theoretical knowledge had become the principal strategic resource, with scientists and professionals displacing industrial capitalists as the leading social class. Subsequently, alternative designations, such as information and network society, were developed, underscoring the role of ICTs in shaping productivity and power structures (Castells, 1996). Critics have challenged these concepts for technological determinism, contending that ICTs represent only the infrastructure, or "hardware", which requires the "software" of human expertise, innovation, and critical engagement to be effective. In response, a broader and more distinct understanding of the KS gained prominence in the late 1990s. Empirical data showed that several nations, including those in Scandinavia, Western Europe, Japan, the United States, Canada, and Australia, have made significant strides toward becoming a knowledge-driven society (Bank, 1998); (U.N.D.E.S.A., 2005).

(Berthoud & Kündig, 2005) described the development of KS as being in several stages. First, it has been a long, drawn-out process of development, punctuated by the development of the codex and the book (which replaced scrolls), the advancement of paper, the book's transformation into a tool for knowledge (indexes, tables, footnotes, and endnotes), increases in the productivity of copy-making (from the "industrial" organisation of the scriptorium to the invention of the printing press), the spread of modern libraries, and the advent of the internet. Second, information technologies foster more creative collaboration between studies and scientists as well as between product designers, suppliers, and end users. Collective labour and learning are facilitated by the development of virtual items that are instantaneously accessible to anyone and are modifiable indefinitely. In this regard, new opportunities for numerical simulation made possible by computers marked another significant departure from previous experience. Third, the new technologies facilitate browsing and analysing the information contained in enormous databases, which is a powerful way to advance knowledge in management, humanities, and social and humanistic sciences equally. These possibilities have a significant impact on various managerial study fields.

Knowledge is a fundamental aspect of being Muslim, by guiding individuals to live within the shari’ah bounds in the quest to attain mardhatillah (Allah’s blessing). The act of seeking, teaching, and sharing knowledge is considered a good deed in Islam. Sharing knowledge is a sadaqah that extends beyond the worldly benefits. In Islam, the Quran and Sunnah are the two sources of knowledge. Seeking, teaching, and sharing knowledge in Islam are based on the Islamic code of ethics and should always be undertaken based on the Islamic worldview. Verse 11 of Surah Al-Mujadala (“. . . Allah will elevate those of you who are faithful, and raise those gifted with knowledge in rank. In a Hadith, Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) said, “Seeking knowledge is an obligation upon every Muslim.” (Ibn Majah). The hadith clearly states that seeking knowledge is a duty for every Muslim and is a religious obligation that everyone must fulfil.

Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) focused on the importance of building a KS. This is evident several instances which include i) during a battle, he required prisoners who could read and write to teach illiterate Muslims instead of paying ransom where this action promoted the transfer of knowledge; and ii) the Prophet's sayings show lifelong learning, the pursuit of knowledge even to distant places, such as China, and the obligation for both men and women to seek knowledge (Sunan Ibn Majah Hadith 224. The Book of the Sunnah – Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad, n.d.).

Considering that the concept of KS is popularised by Western ideas, this section provides a brief analysis to assess its compatibility with the principles of tawhidic (absolute monotheism) epistemology. Bakar's book titled Islamic Civilisation and The Modern World: Thematic Essays (Bakar, 2014) described tawhidic epistemology (or vision of knowledge) as a theory of knowledge that "affirms the view that all true human knowledge ought to be related to the unity of God, since all things are ontologically related to the Divine Origin. Unfortunately, contemporary Muslims do not possess the whole of tawhidic epistemology along with its accompanying exemplary thinking culture.".

(Hasan, 2025) explained that within this tawhidic epistemology, there is only one divine goal, regardless of the subject areas that Muslim learners engage in. In other words, the knowledge and skills acquired are only for the pleasure of God, which can be in the form of a service to humankind and the environment. According to (Hasan, 2025), "The bottom line is that as long as the goal and purpose of knowledge seeking is the pleasure of God through righteousness, altruism, and beneficence, all branches of knowledge are good and Islamic. Therefore, all academic fields are united and come under the purview of tawhidic epistemology."

Education, which includes the activities of seeking, teaching, and sharing knowledge in Islamic tradition, is generally aimed at attaining a balanced growth of spiritual, intellectual, imaginative, physical, scientific, and linguistic. In general, all four premises of the UNESCO's KS (freedom of expression, universal access, respect to culture and language, and quality education (Bindé, 2005)) are universal values that match the values in Islamic and tawhidic epistemology, particularly the 'collectivity' aspect, where knowledge is shared and can be acted upon to benefit the society. A close examination may show that certain boundaries or limits in Islam should be implemented on these premises. For instance, the first premise, freedom of expression, could not be a total liberty to express thoughts, as certain subjects or issues should be kept within religious boundaries. Another example is on the third premise, with respect to culture and language. Although the vast majority in the West embrace the culture of LGBTQ+, Islam condemns this group of people, such that the premise cannot be entirely fulfilled based on Islamic principles. Therefore, the core issue of "whether genuine KS based on Islamic moulds is being implemented in Muslim society" requires further investigation. Muslims should be awakened to rediscover, reunite, and reclaim the Islamic tradition and heritage, a the quest to firmly re) established a KS in the mould of the Islamic worldview. The following section on KS in a halal industry suggests that KS can benefit all stakeholders, including consumers. As an industry governed by Shariah principles, implementing KS shaped by the Islamic worldview is feasible.

The lack of understanding of the tawhidic epistemology has been argued to be the cause of intellectual crisis in the modern age Muslim, which has become the central crisis of the educated Muslims' relationship with the religion (Bakar, 2014). Although the scholarly discussion on tawhidic epistemology has only recently resurfaced, the inherent ideas surrounding this concept have continued to persist.

The halal industry, which is built upon diverse disciplines, could benefit from a thorough discussion from the perspective of tawhidic epistemology

towards reaching a true understanding of the unity of knowledge in attaining the pleasure of Allah. Being a faith-based system, the knowledge, skills, and practice in a halal industry should be guided and moulded by the tawhidic concept. This could safeguard a halal industry from being manipulated or derailed into an economic system that would lose the ruh of a faith-based system.

KS may not be a prominent academic discourse at present. However,

within the expanding halal industry, examining the concept remains valuable to ensure that halal knowledge and related practices are disseminated through KS shaped by tawhidic epistemology. Based on another perspective, KS moulded in tawhidic epistemology can be a vehicle to propel a true faith-based halal industry.

The rise of KS has significant implications for the halal industry as an ecosystem. A halal industry has various sectors that cater to the needs of the Muslim population, including food and beverages, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, tourism, and finance. As the level of education and awareness increases, the demand for halal products and services that meet religious and cultural requirements continues to grow. The wholesomeness and high quality of halal toyyiban products and services are increasingly being accepted by all, beyond the Muslim communities (Hashim et al., 2022).

In this context, KS provides a fertile ground for a halal industry to flourish. The availability of information and communication technologies has made it easier for businesses to access information about halal standards and regulations and to connect with consumers who are interested in the products and services. This has led to the development of new halal industries, such as halal e-commerce and certification services, which provide consumers with greater access to products and services. KS has also led to greater awareness about the importance of ethical and sustainable practices in the halal industry. Consumers are becoming more conscious about the environmental and social impact of choices and are looking for halal products and services that are produced ethically and sustainably. This has led to the development of new standards and certifications, such as Halal Management System.

In conclusion, the key concept of a KS is that the knowledge-sharing efforts undertaken would benefit society. KS is relevant to all sectors, including the halal industry. The sharing of knowledge enables this society to further develop and sustain a halal industry that benefits mankind. KS contains the inherent Islamic principles surrounding knowledge acquisition and dissemination. However, the core issue of “whether genuine KS based on Islamic moulds is being implemented in Muslim society” requires further investigation, considering that KS is popularised by a Western idea. The Muslims should be awakened to rediscover, reunite, and reclaim Islamic tradition and heritage, a quest to firmly reestablish a KS in the mould of Islamic worldview and tawhidic epistemology.